一、语言和语言学

1、语言的区别性特征：Design of features of language

任意性 arbitrariness 指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系

二重性 duality 指语言由两层结构组成

创造性 creativity 指语言可以被创造

移位性 displacement 指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点

2、语言的功能（不是很重要）

信息功能 informative

人际功能 interpersonal

施为功能 performative

感情功能 emotive function

寒暄功能 phatic communication

娱乐功能 recreational function

元语言功能 metalingual function

3、语言学主要分支

语音学 phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程，考查人类语言中的声音

音位学 phonology 研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列

形态学 morphology 研究词的内部结构和构词规则

句法学 syntax 研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则

语义学 semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。如语素和句子的意义

语用学 pragmatics 在语境中研究意义

4、宏观语言学 macrolingustics

心理语言学 psycholinguistics 社会语言学 sociolinguistics 人类语言学 anthropological linguistics 计算机语言学 computational linguistics

5语言学中的重要区别

规定式和描写式：规定式：prescriptive说明事情应该是怎么样的

描写式：descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的

共时研究和历时研究：共时：synchronic 研究某个特定时期语言

历时：diachronic 研究语言发展规律

语言和言语：语言：langue指语言系统的整体

言语：parole指具体实际运用的语言

语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky提出)

能力：competence用语言的人的语言知识储备

运用：performance 真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用

二、语音学

1、语音学分支

发音语音学articulatory phonetics研究语言的产生

声学语言学acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性

听觉语音学 auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知 2 IPA（国际音标）是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的

三、音位学

1、最小对立体minimal pairs

2、音位 phoneme

3 音位变体 allophones

4 互补分布 complementary distribution

5 自由变体 free variation

6 区别特征 distinctive features

7 超音段特征 suprasegmental feature

音节 syllable 重音stress 语调tone 声调intonation

四形态学

1 词的构成

语素morpheme 自由语素free morpheme 粘着语素bound morpheme

Root 词根词缀affix 词干stem

屈折词汇和派生词汇 inflectional affix and derivational affix

2特有的词汇变化lexical change proper

新创词语invention 混拼词blending 缩写词abbreviation

首字母缩写词 acronym 逆构词汇back-formation例：editor—edit

类推构词analogiacal creation 例：work-worked,,slay-slayed

外来词 borrowing

五句法学

1 范畴category 数number 性gender 格case 时tense 体aspect

一致关系concord 支配关系govenrment

2 结构主义学派the structure approach

组合关系 syntagmatic relation词和词组合在一起

聚合关系 paradigmatic 具有共同的语法作用的词聚在一起

结构和成分 construction and constituents :句子不仅是线性结构liner structure还是层级结构hierarchical structure (句子或短语被称为结构体，而构成句子或短语即结构体的称为成分) 3直接成分分析法 immediate constitutional analysis

指把句子分成直接成分－短语，再把这些短语依次切分，得到下一集直接成分，这样层层切分，直到不能再分

4向心结构和离心结构endocentric and exocentric constructions

向心：指一个结构中有中心词，例an old man ,中心为man

离心：指结构中没有明显的中心词。例：on the shelf

5生成学派the generative approach

深层结构deep structure指机构关系中的潜在层面underlying level

表层结构surface structure指结构形成的最后结果阶段final stage

6功能学派the functional approach

主位与述位 theme and rheme

主位：谈话中已知的信息,说话者从它谈起known，

述位：与说话者内容有关的内容what the speaker states about

7交际力communicative and dynamism简称CD

指句子成分对交际发展所作的贡献的程度

六、语义学

1 利奇的意义七分法Leech and his 7 types of meaning

概念意义conceptual meaning 字面意义

内涵意义connotative meaning 实际交往过程中所指的事物

社会意义

情感意义 affective meaning

反射意义 reflective meaning 由一个词语联想起来的另外一种意义

搭配意义 collocative meaning

主位意义 thematic meaning 通过调整信息的顺序和强调内容所表达的意义

2指称论 referential theory

指将词的意义和他所指的食物联系起来的意义理论

3语义三角semantic triangle 奥格登和理查兹提出

Symbol或form 指语言要素（如词和语素），the linguistic elements

能指thought指概念concept

所指reference 指经验世界中的物体the object in the word of experience 涵义sense语言形式的意义

4主要涵义关系

○同义关系synonymy

地域同义词dialectal synonymy

风格同义词 stylistic synonyms

感情同义词 synonymys that differ in connotation意义相同，但内涵不同，有褒有贬

○反义关系antonymy

等级反义关系gradable antonymy 例cool-warm ;hot-cold

互补反义关系 complementary antonymy,肯定A就否定B，否定B 就肯定A，例

dead-alive

反向反义关系converse antonymy .reversal of a relationship between 2 entities.

例 husband-wife; teacher-student

○上下义关系hyponymy 意义包含关系。例：花－水仙、玫瑰、百合

补充：同音同形异义关系homonymy

一词多义 polysemy

七、语用学

1 言语行为理论speech act theory奥斯汀提出John Langshaw Austin

认为人在说话的同时也在进行一定的行为动作

○施为句和叙事句performative and constative

施为句：实施某种行为。

叙事句：描述说话人在说话时所作的动作。

○行事行为理论a theory of the illocutionary act

言内行为：locutionnary act表述字面意思

言外行为：illoutionary act 因为言语本身的习惯力量随之产生的其他一些行为 言后行为：perlocutionnary act 话语在听者身上产生的效果

2会话含义理论 the theory of conversational implicature

格赖斯提出Herbert Paul Grice

○合作原则:说话人和听话人为达一定的交际目的，都有一种默契，一种都遵循的原则 ○ 四个准则four categories of maxims

数量、质量、关系、方式(manner)准则

3后格赖斯时期的发展

○关联理论：relevance theory:交际应被看做一种表明自身说话意图的行为every act of ostensive(直接表明的) communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance

○数量关系和关系原则the Q-and R-principles

由霍恩Laurence Horn 提出

八 现代语言学理论和流派

1 索绪尔Saussure瑞士语言学家，“现代语言学之父”或者“使语言学科走向现代的大师” 2 布拉格学派Prague School

贡献:共时语言学研究，从“功能”角度看待语言，强调语言的系统性，把语言看做一种功能

突出贡献：语音学说，及其划分语音学和音位学

突出：Trubetzkoy特鲁别茨柯依：提出语音学属于言语，音位学属于语言，提出音位概念 4伦敦学派 the Lundon School:系统语言学和功能语言学

创始人：弗斯Firth.人物：弗斯受马林诺夫斯基影响。韩礼德为新弗斯派领袖三人都强调语言环境和语言系统的重要性

韩礼德和系统功能语法：由系统语法和功能语法构成。把实际使用的语言现象作为研究对象

5美国结构主义American Structuralism

共时语言学分支，由博厄斯提出F.Bos.

○撒皮尔-沃尔夫假说Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

语言相对论-语言决定论

○布隆菲尔德Bloomfield《语言论》－20世纪被大西洋两岸同时奉为科学的方法论典范和语言学领域的杰出代表。描述语言学的代表人物

6 转换生成语法transformational–generative grammar

乔姆斯基提出Chomsky.

认为语言是某种天赋，语言习得机制Language Acquisition device

 

第二篇：专八-语言学总结

语言学

Ⅰ. 语言的性质

●Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

It is a means of verbal communication(言语交际).

● Design Features

The features that define our human languages can be called design features.

⑴Arbitrariness(任意性)⑵Duality(二重性)⑶Creativity/Productivity(多产性)⑷Displacement(易境性)

⑸Cultural Transmission (文化传递性)

⑴Arbitrariness(任意性)

The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. e.x. pen--/pen/ book/buk/

Different levels of Arbitrariness

a. Arbitrariness relationship between the sound of a morpheme(语素) and its meaning.

e.x. 叮咚，轰隆 English—wow wow Chinese: wangwangwang

It is only then you know the meaning that you infer that the form is appropriate.

b. Arbitrariness at the syntactic level

Syntax is less arbitrary than words, and the most strictly arbitrary level of language exists in the distinctive units of sounds.

c. Arbitrariness and convention (约定俗成)

Arbitrariness of language makes conventionality(约定俗成性) potentially creative.

⑵Duality(二重性)

-- The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.

the secondary unites: sounds(meaningless)

the primary unites: words(have distinct and identifiable meaning)

⑶Creativity/Productivity(多产性)

Language is resourceful because of its duality and excursiveness(递归性—the potential to create endless sentences). ⑷Displacement(易境性)

-- It is means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are nor present(in time and space) at the moment of communication.

● Functions of Language

⑴Informative(信息功能)

⑵Interpersonal function(人际功能)—how the personal relations being established

⑶Performative (行事性功能)—how language woks in real world

⑷Emotive function(表情功能)—enable users to express whatever feelings they have

⑸Phatic communication(寒暄功能)—the social interaction of language/ helps to define and maintain interpersonal relations

⑹Recreational function（娱乐功能）— a poetic function

⑺Metalingual function（元语言功能）—language can be used to talk about language

The lion are the unicorn all round the town.

All along the town the lion ate the unicorn.

The change in liner order changes our perspective about the concerns of the clause.

Ⅱ. Linguistics 语言学

● Linguistics is a science which takes language as its object of investigation.

We must learn linguistics ①systematically—beginning+engding

②objectively—does according to the facts

③exhaustiveness—to collect data as much as possible so as to enrich one’s knowledge and

support one’s idea

● Distinctions of Linguistics （Lyons）

⑴Descriptive(描写/描述性的) vs. Prescriptive（规定性的）

↖to set up roles for others to follow, designed by

↑ traditional grammer

to talk about something according to something itself

⑵Synchronic（共时研究）vs. Diachronic（历时研究） (Swiss: Saussure)

Synchronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation.

Diachronic: is the study of a language through the course of its history. (study language at least in two periods of time) Comparison: Synchronic: what a language is in a period of time

Diachronic: find our the changes from one language to another language

⑶Langue(语言) & Parole（言语） (Saussure)

Langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker (the abstract system of language)

Parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (the actual use of language)

Langue govern parole; parole reacts langue

⑷Competence(语言能力) & Performance（语言运用） ( American: Chomsky)

↑ ↖the linguistic knowledge in the ideal speakers’ mind

the ability of native/ideal speaker of language

⑸Etic(非位的) vs. Emic（位学的） (American: Pike)

↑ ↖Phonemics(音位学的)，abstract units of language

phonetics(语音学的)，something concreate

Ⅲ. Phonetics 语音学

● Phonetics study speech sounds, including the production of speech(how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and

received), the sounds of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech.

● Consonant: these is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.

Vowel: these is no obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.

Ⅳ. Phonology 音位学

● Phonology is the study of sound systems—the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the

patterns wherein they fall.

广义的音位学指对自然语言声音系统的一般特种的研究，包括语音学。狭义的音位学主要研究人类语言中言语语音组合的方式、模式及变化。

● Phoneme（音位）：they are abstract units which can be distinguished between meanings, but they are meaningless 某一语

言中具有区别表意单位作用的最小语音单位， e.x. pig, big /p/,/b/

Allophones（音位变体）：没有区分表意单位作用的音段。

Minimal pair（最小语音对）：beat, bit 通过寻找最小语音对，可以确定某个音段是否为音位。/i:/ /i/ 是两个独立的音位

Free Variation(自由变体)：如果两个音段出现在相同环境中，但并未产生两个不同的单词，那么它们就是同一个音位的自由变体。

Complementary Distribution(互补分布)：如果两个基本相似的音段绝不会出现在相同的语言环境中，那么它们之间就是互补性分布的关系。 送气的p peak 不会出现在s后，不送气的p也不会出现在词首。

Distinctive Features(区别性特征)：a feature distinguishes one phoneme from another

Syllable(音节) Stress(重音)

Ⅴ. Morphology形态学

● Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning—morphemes and word-formation processes. 研究内部结构及构成规

则。

（how to form words and how to analysis the inner meaning）

／free morpheme: occur alone (dog, nation)

／﹨bound morpheme: appear with at least another morpheme (distempered)

types of morphemes

﹨∕root

—stem

﹨affix／position:①prefix②infix(foot-feet)③suffix

﹨function: ①inflectional (suffix or word-final)

②derivational (prefix or suffix)

Inflectional affix ①add a delicate grammatical meaning to the stem

(屈折词缀) ②produce different forms of a word

(grammatical ③do not change word class

Function) ④conditioned by nonsemantic linguistic factors

Derivational affix ①often change the lexicon meaning

(派生词缀) ②may or may not change word class

(lexical function) ③conditioned by simple meaning distinctions

Ⅵ. Syntax句法学

● Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways in which words, word groups and phrases are combined to form

sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between sentential elements

句法学主要研究句子结构以及词、词组和短语组成句子的规则，还包括词法。

● ■Endocentric construction (向心结构)and Exocentric construction（离心结构）

Endocentric construction：functionally equivalent, has its head of the whole

three small grils

■Subordinate construction(主从结构) & Coordinate construction（平行结构）

↖ more than one head; equal syntactic status

↑ and no one is dependent on the other(boy and girl)

only one head, other constructions are dependent

Exocentric construction: no noticeable head, distribution is not functionally equivalent

■Signified(所指，concept) and Signifier(能指，sound image)

The relationship between them is arbitrary.

■ Deep Structure深层结构 & Surface Structure 表层结构

Deep Structure：the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction

句法属性的抽象表述

A verb and its object

Surface Structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction

句法派生，即说话人说出的句子

Ⅶ. Semantics语义学

● Semantics refers to the study of meaning.

● Conceptual Meaning 概念意义

--单词和所指代的事物之间的关系。

The referential theory 指称论

The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.

将单词的意义同单词所指代或代替的事物直接联系在一起。

Sense relations 涵义关系

Sense may be defined as the semantic relations between one word and another, or more generally between one linguistic unit and another.（synonymy 同义、antonymy反义、hyponymy 上下关系）

语言体系内部各单位之间的意义关系。

Sense relation is concerned with the intra-linguistic relations; reference is concerned with the relation between a linguistic unit and a non-linguistic entity it refers to.

∕abstract (connotation 内涵)

Conceptual ∕Sense relations ﹨intra-linguistic relations

Meaning ＼referential∕concrete (denotation 表意)

﹨a linguistic & a non-linguistic relations

A. Synonymy 同义关系

? the sameness relation

? Its vocabulary comes from Anglo-Saxon and Latin.

∕differ in style (buy & purchase)

Synonymy—differ in connotation (stingy & thrifty & economical)

﹨differ in dialect (fall & autumn)

B. Antonymy 反义关系

∕gradable等级（the denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other）good/bad

Antonymy —complementary 互补(the denial o one means the assertion of the other) alive/dead

﹨ converse 反向 (do not constitute a positive-negative opposition,

show the reversal of a relationship between two entities) husband/wife

C. Hyponymy 上下义关系

-- a matter of class membership (superordinate上义词—hyponyms下义词 )

Animal

／ ∣ ﹨

bird fish insect

sentence meaning: ①lexical ②grammar ③prosodic ④pragmatic ⑤social

③prosodic ④pragmatic ⑤social are additional meaning

Ⅷ. Pragmatics 语用学

● Pragmatics is generally the study of natural language understanding and specifically the study of how context influences

the interpretation of meaning.

语用学研究语言是如何被人们使用来进行交际的，研究如何通过语境来理解和使用语言。

语义学关注作为语言系统中的抽象单位的句子，其研究停留在句子层面 ，它的研究是静止的、孤立的；语用学以实际的话语为研究对象，注重片段的对话，其研究是动态的、情境的。

● Speech Act Theory 言语行为理论 （J. Austin & J. Searle）

-- saying something may be understood as doing something

①locutionary act 发话行为/言内行为 (semantic meaning)

②illocutionary act 行事行为/言外行为（the speaker’s intending meaning）

③perlocutionary act 取效行为/言后行为（the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer）

● Conversational implication 会话含义 (Oxford philosopher Herbert Paul Gride)

当说话者故意不执行某条准则，而让听话者知道他在违反某义准则时，就会产生会话含义。这是说话者有意通过违反准则让对方听到言外之意。

Cooperative Principle 合作原则 (Oxford philosopher Herbert Paul Gride)

--make one’s conventional contribution as is required, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which one is engaged.

? Quantity 数量准则: the participation requires no more and no less information

? Quality 质量准则：the information one is talking about should be true, not false

? Relation 关联准则：the information one provides must be related to the topic/context

? Manner 方式准则：the way one expresses him/herself: clearly, simply, briefly, orderly, directly

Ⅸ. Linguistics语言学学者

● Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) Swiss

“father of modern linguistics” “master of a discipline which he made modern ”

Course in General Linguistics

All linguistics in the 20th century are Saussurean linguistics: ①the arbitrary of sign②the relationsl nature of linguistic units③the distinction of Langue and Parole④synchronic and diachronic

● M. A. K. Halliday (1925-) British

Systemic-Functional Grammar 系统功能语法

系统功能语法①关注语言和社会之间的关系②认为语言是一种“做事”的方式，研究语言于环境的关系③并重视对

个别语言及个别变体的描写。

● Noam Chomsky (1928) American

Linguistic Competence语言能力&Linguistic Performance 语言运用

Surface Structure 表层结构 & Deep Structure 深层结构

Transformational-Generative Grammar 转换生成语法：所有的语言行事都是由人脑中的一些深层结构通过一系列的转换规则衍生而来。

转换生成语法①从心理学角度研究语言②认为语言是一种“知识”方式，着重于语言使用者头脑里的知识结构

③重视发现语言的普遍现象

● John L. Austin (1911-1960) British philosopher

Locutionary act 表意行为、illocutionary act 施事行为、perlocutionary act取效行为

●●●

 

第三篇：英语语言学总结

第一章

All languages have three major components: a sound system, a system of lexicogrammar and a systm of semantics. 语音系统，词汇语法系统和语义系统。

Language is a means of verbal communication.

Design Features of language: the features that define our human languages. 决定了语言性质特征叫定义特征

Design Features:

Arbitratiness(任意性)：the froms of liguistic signs bear no natural relationsip to

their meaning.语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联

系。

1\ Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and

ists meaning语素音义关系的任意性

2\ Arbitrariness at the syntactic level 句法层面上的任意性。

Syntactic: the sentences are constructed according to the

grammar of arrangement. 句法学，是依据语法规定构建句子结

构的方法。

3\ Arbitrariness and convention 任意性和规约性

Duality（二层性）: is meant the propertry of having two levels of structures,

such that units of the primary level are composed of elements

of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own

principles of organization. 二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特

性，上层结构的单位底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合

规则。

Sound-the only function is to combine with one another to form units

that have meaning相互组合构成有意义的单位。

Creativity（创造性）：is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.

源于二层性和递归性

Displacement(移位性)：human languages enable their users to symbolize

objects, events and concepts which are not present at the

moment of communication.人类语言可以让使用者在交往

时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体时间或

观点。比如现在说孔子。

语言功能：

1. informative, also called ideational function. 信息功能也叫概念功能

2) Performative施为功能，is to change the social status of persons. 改变人的社会地位，比如仪式。

3) Emotive Function感情功能

4) Phatic communion寒暄功能

5) Recreational Function娱乐功能

6) Metalingual Function元语言功能

语言学定义：the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language. 研究语言的学科，或对语言的研究。

语言学主要分支：Phonetics语音学-including the production of speech,the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech.包括言语产生，对语音、词语和连续言语等的描写和分类。注重无序语音

Phonology音系学-studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.研究支配语音分布和排列的规则以及音节的形式。

Morphology形态学-concerned with the internal organization of words关心内在构造，研究语素和构词过程（morphemes and word-formation process）

Syntax句法学-principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences.眼睛产生和理解正确的句子所遵循的规则。

Semantics语义学-examines how meaning is encoded in a language考察意义如何在语言中被编码

Progmatics语用学-研究特定场合下的特定话语，尤其注意不同的语言运用的社会语境如何影响语义的诠释。

宏观语言学Macrolinguistics包括：Psycholinguistics心里语言学

Sociolinguistics社会语言学：包括语言社

会功能和语言使用者的社会特性

Anthropological Linguistics人类语言学 Computational Linguistics计算语言学 语言学的重要区别important distinctions in linguistics

1\ Descriptive vs. Prescriptive描写式和规定式

2\ Synchronic vs. Diachronic 公时和历时—在特定时间和历史演变中研究 3\ Langue & Parole 语言和言语—语言能力和语言上的实际表现或语料 4\ Competence and Performance 语言能力和语言运用

第二章 语音 speech sounds

Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmmitted, and perceived. 语音学研究语音的发生、传递、和感知。

语音研究的三个领域：Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学

Acoustic Phonetics 声学语音学，研究语音的物质特征 Perceptual or auditory phonetics 感知或听觉语音学 三大声腔vocal tract：pharynx，mouth, nose 咽、口、鼻

发音以气流（Aristream）作为能量来源

口腔和鼻腔：oral cavity and nasal cavity