一般欧美国家作业（Assignment）通常分为两种形式：一种是文章（Essay）, 一种是报告（Report）格式。二者在形式上有所差别，但大体相同。通常学校发的论文写作规定会对一篇Assignment写成事Essay还是Report格式会作出明确要求。所以在阅读题目要求的时候，务必尽量仔细，否则会因为格式扣分。

两种格式的相同之处：

1、字体：Times New Roman，字号：小四，行距：1.5倍。请有写作之前就把这些格式调好，以避免写好后再调节，会造成不必要的麻烦。

2、段落之间空一行，每段不要求像中文写作那样空两格，而是直接顶格写。

下面还有一些相同点，我在两种文体分开讨论时，再涉及。

两种格式的不同之处：

一、Essay:

Essay的写作相对Report要简单一些。通常只包括三个部分，绪论（Introduction）,主体（Main Body），结论（Conclusion）。绪论（Introduction）包括选题（topic）的背景介绍和文章要解决的主要问题，通常占总字数的10%左右。主体（Main Body）占总字数80%左右。如果题目中作了具体要求，就根据题目提到的几个方面来逐一讨论就可以了。有的题目没有作具体要求，就根据自己的构思来写。

但要求有逻辑性。结论（Conclusion）也是占10%，在这一段里把文章中的主要观点用一到两句话概括出来。Essay 可以不写题目，不要把小标题加粗。Reference的写作是两种形式都要涉及的，我放在最后来详细说。

二、Report：

它的写法大体上和essay差不多，但要求要严格一些。

1、标题页：包括标题和executive summary. 在Executive summary中是对文章的摘要，这两个部分一般是单独占一页。

2、主体部分：Report的主体部分，前三个和essay差不多，只是在conclusion后还有一部分就是recommendations.是对提出的问题的建议。

如果题目中没有单独要求，一般就按照这几部分来写，但有的题目会作出 规定。请按题目要求写哪几部分来写。

下面来说reference

Reference 是老师最看重的，所以请一定注意。

1、 不管前面的主体部分最后一页剩多少空格，reference都要另起一页写；

2、 每条reference之间要空一行。如果一条reference一排写不完，那么下面的几排提行时要和第一排三格。基本格式请参照我发过来的referencing 里面的要求；

3、 References 的排列要按字母顺序排列。可以用网址的reference放在最后；

4、 H引用分为直接引用和间接引用。直接引用就是用了文章或书中的原话。请在出现的作者后面以（年代，页码）的形式标注。没有出现作者就在引用的句子后面用（作者名，年代，页码）的形式标注。间接引用就是参照发文章或书中的观点，引用方法与直接引用形式一样，只是不需要标注页码；

总之referencesq绝对不能出现编造的情况，一定要真实。国外对这个问题查得很严。一旦查出有作假或抄袭情况，客户就要被开除学籍，而我们就要赔款。弄得顷家荡产哦。

另外还有一些更细节的要求，我附在下面，请仔细阅读。

写作注意事项：

1、文章里禁止用缩写，例如：can’t, don’t, didn’t, wouldn’t 应该写成cannot，do not，did not， would not。

2、每段之间空一行，首句不空格

3、避免用口语词汇和表达方法，例如：a little bit，well…I will talk about….

4、避免使用太过生僻的词语，但用词要专业

5、不要从句套从句，句子如果过长，就改成短句，这样意思表达更清楚

6、文章的INTRODUCTION要阐明自己的观点和立场，也就是你的THESIS STATEMENT，尽量不要在文章或段落的开头使用问句。

7、专业知识和词汇使用要正确

8、文章字数控制在规定字数内，不得多于或少于150

9、举例非常重要，但是要符合论点

10、按照文章要求写，没有要求Abstract或者标题的就不用写。

11、行距1.5倍，Basic Font：Times New Roman 12pt

12、文章里禁止使用第一人称或第二人称，保持论证的客观性

Reference的重要性：

国外对于版权和他人的知识版权的保护非常重视，如果非法摘抄他人的作品肯能会引起法律责任。

学校会有一个扫描文章系统，收到的文章都要上传到学校的网上然后由工作人员统一进行扫描。扫描系统非常庞大，它连接了各个国家的主要电子图书馆，所以一般你能抄到的东西，他都可以扫描出来，如果扫描结果显示你抄袭的文章字数超过你文章总数的10％，责证明你整篇文章都是抄袭的。比如你文章字数是1000字，那么如果扫描由101字是抄的。

什么是抄袭？

引用和摘抄他人的idea，文章（就算一句话），没有做references的或者格式错误的reference都算抄袭！

Reference个种类

我们要做的reference有2种，一种是in-text reference 也就是在文章里的reference，一种是在文章最后出现的reference, 也就是reference list。写一篇论文，2种reference都要出现，也就是说做完in-text reference，还要做最后的reference list。

Reference的格式

详见英文版。

Reference wizard 网站：

/apa5/apawiz.html

进入个网站，只要按照他要求的内容输入，他的系统会自动生成一个完整的reference，不过那只是reference list，不是in-text reference. In-text reference 还是需要自己完成。另外那个网站只能提供简单格式的reference，复杂的reference还是需要参考英文版文件。

一般来说一份1000字的文章，至少需要8个references，2000字需要12－15个左右，因为国内的英文出版物有限，各位可以到国外大学图书馆的网站上照着相关的书，然后安上去就好了。（关于这个数量问题，根据我的经验，可以不一定严格要求，但不能太少。一般1000字的写4个或5个，2000字的写10个左右。当然如果你本来就有这么多个的话就更好了。我这里说的是最少情况）

再次强调！！！引用他人的任何东西一定要做好references！！！

论文写作要求

格式要求（具体看老师要求）

行距： 1.5倍

页边距： Word 默认

字体： Times New Roman

字体大小：12（小四）

标题字体可加粗

每段落之间空一行

每段直接写，无需空格

在每页的右下角插入页数

写作要求

Abstract （序）；

1－2段；

字数为文章的的10－15％，例如，一篇文章要求2000字，那么abstract一般写200－300字， 除非特殊要求

Abstract的目的就是让读者知道你的在你的文章里写了些什么； Abstract的开头要用1－2自己的语言总结和解释文章的题目，简单来说就是用自己的话把文章的题目写一遍

Abstract细节是概括你在你的文章里都写了什么，每个论点就用2－3句话总结；

Abstract的结尾就是写总结和延伸你的所有论点和整个的大标题； 不是每篇作业都要求写abstract，一般情况下都不要求，除非老师特殊写明要写abstract。

Introduction（开头）

字数为文章总数的10％，例如，一篇文章要求2000字，那么introduction一般写200－250字

Introduction只用一段即可，不可以分成2段写

Introduction的第1－2句是解释文章题目，单来说就是用自己的话把文章的题目写一遍

接下来的用2句话左右介绍一下文章题目的背景

Introduction主要是写你将要在你的文章里写些什么，用2－3句话

来概括所有In this easy, firstly, I will discuss…, and then I will…, thirdly, I will…的论点，每个论点用几个词即可，例如：

一般来说，老师给的题目都很宽，可以写很多方面，但是你要选其中一点来写，这样文章才能讨论的深入，如果文章写的很笼统的话，肯定会不合格

Introduction最后不需要总结句

Body（文章的讨论部分，也是文章的主体）

每一个论点都必须用一段来写，换句话说，每个段落只能出现一个论点，出现2个会被扣分；

在body的部分里不能出现I，he，she等人称，除在举例中； 每一段话都有要introduction，explanation，examples。接下来重点讲这4部分如何写；

Introduction：用1－2句写你这段的主要的论点或者是idea； Explanation：用1－2句解释你的论点；

Examples：举例支持你的论点，这部分要重点写，举例在文章中很重要，举例可以用名人说的话，专业的文章里例子，或者自己的亲身经历。有时老师会要求要用自己的亲身经历作为例子；

Body一般有3－6个论点，如果文章的字数在1000－3000字，所以body就一般有2－6段，每段最好是有联系，层层深入。

Conclusion

字数为文章总数的10％，例如，一篇文章要求2000字，那么conclusion一般写200－250字；

Conclusion只用一段即可，不可以分成2段写；

Conclusion的第1－2句是解释文章题目，单来说就是用自己的话把文章的题目写一遍；

Conclusion主要是总结你文章中的论点，每个论点要用一句话； Conclusion最后一句要延伸一下，但是在conclusion里不能出现新的论点。

Introduction和conclusion的区别

Introduction是讲你在文章里要写什么东西，所以只要用几个词概括你个论点；

Conclusion是用1句话总结你的每个论点，要比introduction详细些； Introduction需要介绍题目的背景，conclusion责不用，只需要概括总结题目。

Recommendation

Recommendation是写文章标题的缺陷

一般只要写一个论点，提出解决办法，如何消除这个弱点，格式和body段落的要求是一样的：introduction，explanation，example和用一句话做个conclusion

一般都不写recommendation，除非老师特殊要求。

 

第二篇：各种Essay的写法

各种Essay的写法（去国外很重要的）

1.) Critical Essay 2.) Literature Essay 3.) Descriptive Essay

Literature Essay

1.) Introduction

a. Introduction to the topic

b. Thesis Statement

c. Essay Outline

2.) Body Paragraph 1

a. Transition Sentence

b. Essay point number 1

c. Explanation + Facts

3.) Body Paragraph 2

a. Transition Sentence

b. Essay point number 1

c. Explanation + Facts

4.) Conclusion

a. Transition Sentence

b. Restate important points and why they support your thesis

Terms commonly use in literature essays:

All fiction is based on conflict and this conflict is presented in a structured format called PLOT.

Exposition

The introductory material which gives the setting, creates the tone, presents the characters, and presents other facts necessary to understanding the story. Foreshadowing

The use of hints or clues to suggest what will happen later in the story. Inciting Force

The event or character that triggers the conflict.

Conflict

The essence of fiction. It creates plot. The conflicts we encounter can usually be identified as one of four kinds. (Man versus…Man, Nature, Society, or Self)

Rising Action

A series of events that builds from the conflict. It begins with the inciting force and ends with the climax.

Crisis

The conflict reaches a turning point. At this point the opposing forces in the story meet and the conflict becomes most intense. The crisis occurs before or at the same time as the climax.

Climax

The climax is the result of the crisis. It is the high point of the story for the reader. Frequently, it is the moment of the highest interest and greatest emotion. The point at which the outcome of the conflict can be predicted. Falling Action

The events after the climax which close the story.

Resolution (Denouement)

Rounds out and concludes the action.

CHARACTERIZATION

MAJOR CHARACTERS

Almost always round or three-dimensional characters. They have good and bad qualities. Their goals, ambitions and values change. A round character changes as a result of what happens to him or her. A character who changes inside as a result of what happens to him is referred to in literature as a DYNAMIC character. A dynamic character grows or progresses to a higher level of understanding in the course of the story.

Protagonist

The main character in the story

Antagonist

The character or force that opposes the protagonist.

Foil

A character who provides a contrast to the protagonist.

MINOR CHARACTERS

Almost always flat or two-dimensional characters. They have only one or two striking qualities. Their predominant quality is not balanced by an opposite quality. They are usually all good or all bad. Such characters can be interesting or amusing in their own right, but they lack depth. Flat characters are someti

mes referred to as STATIC characters because they do not change in the course of the story.

POINT OF VIEW

First Person

The narrator is a character in the story who can reveal only personal thoughts and feelings and what he or she sees and is told by other characters. He can’t tell us thoughts of other characters.

Third-Person Objective

The narrator is an outsider who can report only what he or she sees and hears. This narrator can tell us what is happening, but he can’t tell us the thoughts of the characters.

Third-Person Limited

The narrator is an outsider who sees into the mind of one of the characters. Omniscient

The narrator is an all-knowing outsider who can enter the minds of more than one of the characters.

CONFLICT

Conflict is the essence of fiction. It creates plot. The conflicts we encounter can usually be identified as one of four kinds.

Man versus Man

Conflict that pits one person against another.

Man versus Nature

A run-in with the forces of nature. On the one hand, it expresses the insignificance of a single human life in the cosmic scheme of things. On the other hand, it tests the limits of a person’s strength and will to live.

Man versus Society

The values and customs by which everyone else lives are being challenged. The character may come to an untimely end as a result of his or her own convictions. The character may, on the other hand, bring others around to a sympathetic point of view, or it may be decided that society was right after all. Man versus Self

Internal conflict. Not all conflict involves other people. Sometimes people are their own worst enemies. An internal conflict is a good test of a character’s values. Does he give in to temptation or rise above it? Does he demand the most from himself or settle for something less? Does he even bother to struggle? The internal conflicts of a character and how they are resolved are good clues to the character’s inner strength.

Often, more than one kind of conflict is taking place at the same time. In every case, however, the existence of conflict enhances the reader’s understanding of a character and creates the suspense and interest that make you want to continue reading.

FORESHADOWING

An author’s use of hints or clues to suggest events that will occur later in the story. Not all foreshadowing is obvious. Frequently, future events are merely hinted at through dialogue, description, or the attitudes and reactions of the characters.

Foreshadowing frequently serves two purposes. It builds suspense by raising questions that encourage the reader to go on and find out more about the event that is being foreshadowed. Foreshadowing is also a means of making a narrative more believable by partially preparing the reader for events which are to follow.

IRONY

Irony is the contrast between what is expected or what appears to be and what actually is.

Verbal Irony

The contrast between what is said and what is actually meant.

Irony of Situation

This refers to a happening that is the opposite of what is expected or intended.

Dramatic Irony

This occurs when the audience or reader knows more than the characters know.

TONE/MOOD

Tone

The author’s attitude, stated or implied, toward a subject. Some possible attitudes are pessimism, optimism, earnestness, seriousness, bitterness, humorous, and joyful. An author’s tone can be revealed through choice of words and details.

Mood

The climate of feeling in a literary work. The choice of setting, objects, details, images, and words all contribute towards creating a specific mood. For example, an author may create a mood of mystery around a character or setting but may treat that character or setting in an ironic, serious, or humorous tone

SYMBOLISM

A person, place or object which has a meaning in itself but suggests other meanings as well. Things, characters and actions can be symbols. Anything that suggests a meaning beyond the obvious.

Some symbols are conventional, generally meaning the same thing to all readers.

For example: bright sunshine symbolizes goodness and water is a symbolic cleanser.

THEME

The main idea or underlying meaning of a literary work. A theme may be stated or implied. Theme differs from the subject or topic of a literary work in that it involves a statement or opinion about the topic. Not every literary work has a theme. Themes may be major or minor. A major theme is an idea the author returns to time and again. It becomes one of the most important ideas in the story. Minor themes are ideas that may appear from time to time. It is important to recognize the difference between the theme of a literary work and the subject of a literary work. The subject is the topic on which an author has chosen to write. The theme, however, makes some statement about or expresses some opinion on that topic. For example, the subject of a story might be war while the theme might be the idea that war is useless. Four ways in which an author can express themes are as follows:

1. Themes are expressed and emphasized by the way the author makes us feel.. By sharing feelings of the main character you also share the ideas that go through his mind.

2. Themes are presented in thoughts and conversations. Authors put words in their character’s mouths only for good reasons. One of these is to develop a story’s themes. The things a person says are much on their mind. Look for thoughts that are repeated throughout the story.

3. Themes are suggested through the characters. The main character usually illustrates the most important theme of the story. A good way to get at this theme is to ask yourself the question, what does the main character learn in the course of the story?

4. The actions or events in the story are used to suggest theme. People naturally express ideas and feelings through their actions. One thing authors think about is what an action will "say". In other words, how will the action express an idea or theme?

IMAGERY: Language that appeals to the senses. Descriptions of people or objects stated in terms of our senses.

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE

Whenever you describe something by comparing it with something else, you are using figurative language. Any language that goes beyond the literal meaning of words in order to furnish new effects or fresh insights into an idea or a subject. The most common figures of speech are simile, metaphor, and alliteration.

Simile

A figure of speech which involves a direct comparison between two unlike things, usually with the words like or as. Example: The muscles on his brawny arms are strong as iron bands.

Metaphor

A figure of speech which involves an implied comparison between two relatively unlike things using a form of be. The comparison is not announced by like or as. Example: The road was a ribbon of moonlight.

Alliteration

Repeated consonant sounds occurring at the beginning of words or within words. Alliteration is used to create melody, establish mood, call attention to important words, and point out similarities and contrasts. Example: wide-eyed and wondering while we wait for others to waken.

Personification

A figure of speech which gives the qualities of a person to an animal, an object, or an idea. It is a comparison which the author uses to show something in an entirely new light, to communicate a certain feeling or attitude towards it and to control the way a reader perceives it. Example: a brave handsome brute fell with a creaking rending cry--the author is giving a tree human qualities.

Onomatopoeia

The use of words that mimic sounds. They appeal to our sense of hearing and they help bring a description to life. A string of syllables the author has made up to represent the way a sound really sounds. Example: Caarackle! Hyperbole

An exaggerated statement used to heighten effect. It is not used to mislead the reader, but to emphasize a point. Example: She’s said so on several million occasions

Descriptive Essay:

1.) Introduction

a. Introduction to the topic

b. Main point in the paper

c. Essay Outline

2.) Body

a. Break down event chronologically, in order of importance, etc.

3.) Conclusion

a. Transition Sentence

b. Restate important points

Research Paper

Title Page

Abstract

Acknowledgements

Table of Contents

Outline of a Critical Essay

Notes: Footnotes, endnotes, and parenthetical in-text citiation Bibliography

Appendix

Paraphrase, Summarize, Quotes