GRE考试Issue写作范文详解

GRE考试Issue写作范文详解(1~19)

(1):

Issue  "The reputation of anyone who is subjected to media scrutiny will eventually be diminished."
  观点陈述型作文/[题目]
  "被置于媒体审视下的任何人,其名誉终将受毁损。"
  Sample Essay
  The intensity of today's media coverage has been greatly magnified by the sheer number and types of media outlets that are available today. Intense competition for the most revealing photographs and the latest information on a subject has turned even minor media events into so-called "media frenzies". Reporters are forced by the nature of the competition to pry ever deeper for an angle on a story that no one else has been able to uncover. With this type of media coverage, it does become more and more likely that anyone who is subjected to it will have his or her reputation tarnished, as no individual is perfect. Everyone makes mistakes. The advances in technology have made much information easily and instantaneously available. Technology has also made it easier to dig further than ever before into a person's past, increasing the possibility that the subject's reputation may be harmed.
  [范文正文]
  当今媒体报道的力度,由于当今时代所能获得的媒体渠道那前所未有的数量和种类,从而被极大地增强。围绕着对最具暴露性的图片及对某一题材最新信息所展开的竞争,使哪怕是次要的媒体事件也转变为所谓的"媒体疯狂".由于竞争的本质,记者们被迫就某一项报道作深度采访,以其窥探到一个任何其他人都无法揭示的视角。随着这类媒体报道的出现,任何被置于媒体报道之下的人,其名誉越来越有可能被玷污,因为"金无赤金,人无完人".每个人都有可能犯错误。技术进步使大量的信息在第一瞬间便被轻易获取。技术也使媒体得以比以往任何时候更深入地去挖掘一个人的过去,从而更增加了当事人名誉受损的可能性。
  The above statement is much too broad, however. "Anyone" covers all people all over the world. There are people whose reputations have only been enhanced by media scrutiny. There are also people whose reputations were already so poor that media scrutiny could not possibly diminish it any further. There may very well be people that have done nothing wrong in the past, at least that can be discovered by the media, whose reputations could not be diminished by media scrutiny. To broadly state that "anyone" subjected to media coverage will have his or her status sullied implies that everyone's reputation worldwide is susceptible to damage under any type of media scrutiny. What about children, particularly newborn children? What about those people whose past is entirely unknown?
  然则,上述陈述涵盖面过于宽泛。"任何人"涵盖了世界上所有的人。有些人的名誉反而会因为媒体的聚焦而陡然显赫起来。也有些人,其名声早就如此之糟糕,以致于媒体的聚焦再也无法让它受到更坏的毁损。笼统地陈述受媒体报道的"任何人"均会使其地位被玷污,这暗示着全球每个人的名声在任何种类的媒体聚焦下均易于遭诟病。那么,对于天真无辜的孩子们,尤其新生婴儿,情况会如何?对于那些其过去根本无人知晓的人来说,情况又会是什么样呢?
  Another problem with such a broad statement is that it does not define the particular level of media scrutiny. Certainly there are different levels of media coverage. Does merely the mention of one's name in a newspaper constitute media scrutiny? What about the coverage of a single event in someone's life, for example a wedding or the birth of a baby? Is the media coverage of the heroic death of a firefighter or police officer in the line of duty ever going to diminish that person's reputation? It seems highly unlikely that in these examples, although these people may have been subjected to media scrutiny, these individual's reputations are undamaged and potentially enhanced by such exposure.
  对于这样一项笼统的陈述而言,它的另一个问题是没能明晰界定媒体聚焦的具体程度。媒体的报道毫无疑问存在程度上的差别。只在报纸上提及一个人的名字,是否算作媒体聚焦?对某人一生中单独一次事件(如婚礼或孩子出生)的报道这也算媒介聚焦吗?媒体对消防队员或警官因公而死的英雄壮举进行报道,难道也会毁损该人的名声吗?在这些实例中,其名声受损的事情极不可能发生。虽然这些人可能被置于媒体审视之下,但其名声却会完好无损,且潜在地可因这些披露而得以提高。
  Without a doubt, there are many examples of individual's whose reputations have been diminished by media scrutiny. The media's uncovering of former U.S. President Bill Clinton's affair with Monica Lewinsky will most likely overshadow the entire eight years of his administration. Basketball superstar Michael Jordan's sterling reputation has been tarnished more than once by the media; first by media coverage of his gambling habits, then most recently (and in a much more harmful manner) by news reports of his marital infidelities and the divorce from his wife of thirteen years. Fame and fortune can turn an ordinary individual into a media target where reporters will stop at almost nothing to "dig up dirt" that will sell more newspapers or entice more viewers to watch a television program. It could even be argued that media scrutiny killed Princess Diana as her car sped away from the privacy-invading cameras of reporters in Paris. There is no doubt that there are a large number of people who have been hurt in one way or another by particularly intense media scrutiny.
  毫无疑问,也有许多例子能证明一个人的名声会被媒体审视所毁损。媒体对美国前总统Bill Clinton与Monica Lewinsky的风流韵事的揭露极有可能会将其八年的执政生涯置于阴影之中。超级篮球明星Michael Jordan一世英名也被媒体不止一次地玷污,首先是被有关其赌习的媒体报道,其次是最近——且以一种更具致命性伤害的方式——被有关他婚姻不忠以及与其结婚13年的妻子分道扬镳的报道。当媒体记者不择手段去挖掘某些可促使其报纸销量大增的"猛料"时,或去诱惑更多的观众观看某一电视节目时,名和利就会将一个普通人转变为媒体追踪的目标。我们甚至可以提出这样一种论点,即正是媒体的审视将Diana王妃置于死地,随着她的汽车去竭力逃脱巴黎街头的记者们那侵犯隐私的相机镜头。毫无疑问,肯定有许多人被极其强烈的媒体聚焦以一种方式或另一种方式所伤害。
  In summary, it seems impossible that for every person that is subjected to media scrutiny, his or her reputation will eventually be diminished. Millions of people are mentioned in the media every day yet still manage to go about their lives unhurt by the media. Normal individuals that are subjected to media scrutiny can have their reputation either enhanced or damaged depending on the circumstances surrounding the media coverage. The likelihood of a diminished reputation from the media rises proportionally with the level of notoriety that an individual possesses and the outrageousness of that person's behavior. The length of time in the spotlight can also be a determining factor, as the longer the person is examined in the media, the greater the possibility that damaging information will be discovered or that the individual will do something to disparage his or her reputation. But to broadly state that media scrutiny will diminish anyone's reputation is to overstate the distinct possibility that, given a long enough time and a certain level of intensity of coverage, the media may damage a person's reputation.
  (766words)
  归纳而言,对于每个被置于媒体审视的人来说,其名声将最终受到毁损似乎并不可能。每天,有数百万人被媒体提到,但他们仍设法我行我素,不为媒体所伤害。被置于媒体审视之下的普通人,其名声或可得到提高,或可蒙受毁损,取决于围绕着媒体报道的具体情况。一个人的名声受媒体毁损的可能性,与所其拥有的臭名昭著的程度,及其行为的令人厌恶程度成正比。受媒体关注的时间长短同样也是一个决定性因素,因为一个人被媒体审视的时间越长,于他名声不利的信息越有可能被抖落出来,或者该人越有可能去做出某些于其名声不利的事情。但只是笼统地陈述媒体的审视终将毁掉一个人的名声,即是过分夸大这样一种显著的可能性,即在足够长的时间和一度程度的报道力度这两个条件下,媒体是有可能毁掉一个人的名声的。

(2):

Issue  "The study of history has value only to the extent that it is relevant to our daily lives."
  Sample Essay
  To state that the study of history is only valuable if it is relevant to our daily lives is to ignore the value that history has beyond the day-to-day activities of human beings. It would seem to be a rather shallow statement that implies that humans only live just to survive rather than planning for the futures of their children and the environment.
  First of all, to study history is to look at a road map of human behavior that has led us to where we are today in the world. For example, the lessons learned during all of the past wars can make for more effective wartime leadership by avoiding mistakes made by past commanders. From the ancient Chinese author Sun Tzu's book "The Art of War", today's military commanders and even business leaders gather valuable information that allows them to operate more efficiently and effectively. The study of this type of history has a value beyond the daily lives of people. It can lead to a military victory or the success of a business that directly affects what happens in the future, including the futures of those that are possibly not even born yet.
  Another example is that by studying history, parents can help to improve the lives of their children in the future. Lessons learned by generations of their ancestors before them could help show them the way to properly raise a child. What worked for others can give guidance to the parents of today and tomorrow to make sure that children are prepared for their own futures beyond their daily lives.
  Additionally, the study of medical advances made throughout history can be the foundation to build upon to make the medical advances of today and tomorrow to make people live longer and healthier lives. A researcher's daily life may not be enhanced by the study of the history of the AIDS pathogen, but it could certainly bring about a profound effect on the lives of others in the future if ways to control and cure the disease are found. The study of previous research over history has led to many amazing medical discoveries. To study history only to enrich one's daily life would here again seem to be incongruous with the truth.
  A further example of the value of the study of history beyond its effect on daily life is the treatment of the environment and the earth as a whole. Looking back to the past to see the various effects of various human behaviors on the environment can show valuable lessons on what can happen if proper precautions are not taken. The nuclear accidents at Three Mile Island and Chernobyl have been studied to ensure that they do not happen again. Certainly the study of the effects of nuclear materials on humans and the environment provides value beyond that of the day-to-day life of people. The study of oil spills and their effects on the environment gives similar guidance on how to avoid or at least minimize the damage of an oil spill on the environment. The study of the disintegration of the ozone layer over the poles of the earth has given birth to new laws and regulations on certain chemicals that help to preserve this valuable part of our atmosphere. All of these examples of studying history provide value far beyond its impact on the daily lives of people.
  To be certain, there are people out there that believe that only what affects them right here and right now is important. For them, the study of history might seem to be a waste of time if it does not affect their day-to-day lives. But for countless other individuals and groups, the study of history leads to improvements in activities that have an effect reaching far into the future, beyond their daily lives. The futures of mankind and the environment depend on these types of people who have enough foresight to study history to make for a better future for everyone.
  (690 words)

观点陈述型作文
  [题目]
  "对历史的研究只有与我们日常生活相关才有其价值".
  [范文正文]
  "史学研究只有与我们日常生活相关才有价值"这一陈述忽略了历史在人类日常活动之外的价值。这似乎是一种甚为浅薄的论点,其言下之意是,人类生活在这个世界上只是为了得以生存下去,而不是为着其孩子和环境的未来作规划。
  首先,研究历史即是去审视一帧人类行为的"指路图",让我们明白我们何以会处于目前的状态。例如,从过去战争中所吸取的全部教训能够通过帮助人们避免昔日指挥官们所犯的错误而促进更为有效的战时领导艺术。从中国古代的《孙子兵法》一书中,今天的军事指挥官们甚至是商界领袖们得以获取极有价值的信息,使他们能更有效地进行战争或商业操控。这种历史研究所具备的价值已超越了人们日常生活这一范畴。它所能导致的军事胜利或商业成功可直接影响到未来所要发生的一切,包括尚未出生的人的未来。
  另一个例子是通过研究历史,父母们可以改善他们孩子在未来的生活。父辈之前的数代祖先们所学到的教训可以向父辈们表明什么才是抚养孩子的恰当方法。于他人有效的东西可以为当今和未来的父母们提供有益的指导,以确保孩子们可为其未来作好准备。
  此外,研究历史上所取得的医学进步可以奠定一个基础,为当今和未来取得医学进步创造条件,使人们得以过上寿命更长且更为健康的生活。研究爱滋病病源体的历史,或许并不能改善研究人员的日常生活,但它却肯定能对其他人在未来的生活产生深远的影响,如果控制和治疗这一疾病的方法能被找到。对历史上昔日的研究进行分析,已导致了许多令人惊喜的医学发现。只为了丰富一个人日常生活而去研究历史,在这里将再一次与事实真相不符。
  历史研究的价值能超越其对日常生活的直接影响,这方面的另一个案例是人类是如何对环境及整个地球的。回顾历史,看清各种人类行为对环境所造成的各种影响,这样做可以向人们昭示,如果不采取恰当的防范措施,则后患无穷。发生在三英里岛和切尔诺贝的核事故被研究,以便确保此类事故不再发生。就核物质对人类及环境的影响展开研究,这无疑会提供超越人们日常生活的价值。对原油泄漏及对环境影响进行研究,可以提供类似的指导,让人们懂得如何去避免或至少是减轻原油泄漏对环境产生的后果。对地球南北两极臭氧层遭破坏进行研究,促使人类就某些化学品制定出新的法规,从而有助于保护我们大气层中的有价值的这一部分。所有这些研究历史的实例所提供的价值无疑已超越了对人们日常生活所产生的影响。
  当然了,社会上有些人相信,只有那些此时此地影响着他们的事情才是重要的。对他们而言,对历史的研究如果不能够影响到他们日常生活的话,就纯粹是在浪费时间。但对于无数其他个人和群体来说,研究历史可导致其所从事的活动的改善,这些活动所产生的影响会深入到未来,远远超越其日常生活。人类和环境的未来就有赖于这样一些类型的人,他们高瞻远瞩,从历史中获取有益的教训,以谋求为所有的人创造一个更为美好的未来。

(3):

Issue  "People work more productively in teams than individually. Teamwork requires cooperation, which motivates people much more than individual competition does."
  Sample Essay
  Teamwork as a whole can naturally produce an overall greater productivity through the concept of "synergy", where the total of the whole is greater than the sum of its individual parts. But the idea that people work more productively in teams rather than as individuals is going to vary greatly between the types of teams that are organized, the end reward or motivation for both the team and the individuals, as well as the individuals themselves.
  Regarding individuals, some people are born with the desire to succeed, no matter what the situation or task that they are facing. These people may evolve into the classic "Type A" personalities that work ferociously because they are driven by an internal fire that says they must always be doing something, whether individually or as part of a team. Other people may desire to be less socially involved or are very highly competitive with other people. For these people, their work is most productive as individuals, because the very idea of cooperating with other people limits their effectiveness and efficiency because they simply do not want to be a part of the team. Whether this mindset is innate or developed over time does not matter, it is merely the state of their being and neither motivation nor rewards can generate inside them the desire to work collectively as a team.
  Some people are highly motivated by social interaction and the desire to work with others towards a collective effort. Obviously these individuals are at their most productive when working as part of a team. Organizational behavioral studies have shown that Asian cultures are much more likely to develop this type of collective behavior as opposed to the more individualistic behavior associated with Western cultures. It could naturally be assumed then that there may be cultural values that can determine whether people are at their most productive individually or as part of a team.
  Another variable is the end reward that is involved with the task at hand. Will the rewards be greater if the team works together towards a common goal, or are the rewards more geared toward individual performance? To the extent that the individual is motivated by the end reward, obviously his or her performance inside of a team may be more or less productive with respect to the entire team, depending on how the performance is rewarded. Individual goals may interfere with the group performance. Synergies may not be achieved because the individuals are not working towards a whole "sum" but rather towards an individual reward. Productivity thus will vary for each person as a team member or as an individual depending on the degree to which that person is motivated by an individual or overall team reward.
  Finally, the degree of productivity of a person will depend upon the type of team that is organized. Is the group composed of equally contributing individuals? Does the group have an outstanding leader that can motivate both the individuals and the team as a whole? From a pure productivity standpoint, the presence or absence of a charismatic and exceptional leader can make all the difference whether a person would be more productive as a part of a team or as an individual. Personality types that work well together can prove to be much more productive as part of a team than as individuals, and vice versa.
  Fundamentally, measures of productivity depend greatly on the individuals themselves. The dilemma facing leaders in all areas of life is how to best assess these individuals to determine how to best harness their capabilities to reach their ultimate productive capabilities. Whether a person is more productive alone or while working in concert with others is one of the great challenges that leaders and managers must face to accomplish tasks effectively and efficiently.

观点陈述型作文/[题目]
  "当人们以团队的形式工作时,要比以孤军奋战的形式来得更加富有成效。团队的协同工作需要相互合作,它比个人竞争更能激励人们。"
  [范文正文]
  总体而言,团队的协同工作自然能通过"增效作用"(Synergy)这一理念而带来更高程度的整体生产效率,因为在这里,整体大于个体相加之总和。然则,"当人们以团队的形式工作时,要比以孤军奋战的形式来得更加富有成效"这一观念注定会产生巨大差异,取决于所组织起来的团队的类别,团队与个人所能获得的终极回报或激励,以及个人本身。
  关于个人,有些人天生就具有获取成功的欲望,无论他们所面临的情形或任务是什么。这些人会演变为工作狂这一经典的"A类"人格,因为受到一股内心的热火所驱使,这股热火时刻告诉他们必须不停地"有所事事",无论是作为个人抑或是作为团队的一分子。另一些人则可能希望不必那么多地介入社会,或者他们倾向于与其他人激烈竞争。对这些人而言,作为个人,他们工作起来会最富有成效,因为由于他们根本就不想成为任何团队的一部分,与他人合作便会限制他们的效率。这一思想倾向是否与生俱有,还是随着时间的推移而形成,这都无关紧要。这仅仅只是他们的一种生存状态,无论是动机还是回报,都无法在其内心深处激发起作为一个团队集体工作的欲望。
  有些人,由于社会互动以及与他人协作去实现某种集体努力的欲望,而具有极强的动机。显然,这些个人在作为团队的一部分进行工作时,他们便会处在其最富有成效的状态。组织行为学研究表明,亚洲文化更有可能形成此类集体性行为,与那种常和西方文化联系在一起的较为个人主义的行为构成对比。这样,人们自然会认为,某些文化价值观可以决定人们是否作为个人还是作为团队的一部分工作起来最富有成效。

(4):

Topic  The following is a letter to the editor of an environmental magazine:"The decline in the numbers of amphibians worldwide clearly indicates the global pollution of water and air. Two studies of amphibians in Yosemite National Park in California confirm my conclusion. In 1915 there were seven species of amphibians in the park, and there were abundant numbers of each species. However, in 1992 there were only four species of amphibians observed in the park, and the numbers of each species were drastically reduced. The decline in Yosemite has been blamed on the introduction of trout into the park's waters, which began in 1920 (trout are known to eat amphibian eggs). But the introduction of trout cannot be the real reason for the Yosemite decline because it does not explain the worldwide decline."
  Sample Essay
  In this argument, the writer of the letter concludes that global pollution of water and air has caused a decline in the number of amphibians worldwide. To support his or her conclusion, the writer cites the results of two studies, seventy-five years apart, that purportedly show that the number of amphibians in one park in California, Yosemite National Park, have drastically declined. Additionally, the writer casts aside a given reason for the decline, stating that the introduction of trout to the park (who are known to eat amphibian eggs) does not explain the worldwide decline in the number of amphibians. This argument defies simple logic and suffers from several critical fallacies.
  First of all, the argument is based on only two studies in one specific part of the world, Yosemite National Park in California. It is impossible to pinpoint a worldwide theory for the decline of amphibians based on any number of studies in only one specific location in the world - the specific varieties of amphibians, geographical conditions and other location specific variables prohibit such a sweeping generalization. One very specific location cannot be used as a model for all other locations, even within one particular country, let alone the entire world. The writer provides no evidenced whatsoever that links the Yosemite study with any purported effects anywhere else in the global environment.
  Secondly, the two separate studies were done seventy-five years apart. There is no evidence that the two studies were conducted in a similar manner over the same duration of time or even over the same exact areas of Yosemite National Park, or that the exact same study methods were used. For example, perhaps the first study lasted over an entire year and was conducted by twenty-five experts in amphibious biology, resulting in the finding of seven species of amphibians in abundant numbers. By contrast, perhaps the second study was conducted over a period of one week by a lone high school student as a school science project. The writer offers no basis on which to compare the two studies, leaving it open as to whether the two are truly comparable in their breadth, scope and expertise.
  Finally, the writer notes that the decline in the amphibian population has been blamed on the introduction of trout into the park's waters in 1920, but then dismisses that argument on the purely specious basis that it does not explain the worldwide decline. This part of the argument blithely dismisses the very relevant fact that trout are known to eat amphibian eggs. This attempt to "prove a negative" is the last resort of those in search of some vain attempt to prove the truth of the matter that they are asserting. It is basically impossible to "prove a negative"; this is an attempt to shift the burden of proof back on to the nonbelievers of the argument. The global environmental situation and that of Yosemite National Park are not perfectly correlated, and the fact that the trout may very well be responsible for the decline cannot simply be dismissed without further proof.
  In summary, the writer fails to establish any causal relationship between global air and water pollution and the decline of amphibious life worldwide. The evidence presented is extremely weak at best and narrowly focuses on one tiny area of the globe, as well as putting forward as proof two studies about which almost nothing is known. For a stronger argument, the writer would need to directly put forth evidence associating air and water pollution with not only the decline at Yosemite but also throughout other areas of the world.(599 words)

  [题目]
  下述文字摘自一封致某环保杂志编辑的信函:"全球两栖动物数量的减少明显标志着全球性水与大气的污染。对加利福尼亚州约塞米蒂国家公园内两栖动物所作的两项研究可证实我的这一结论。1915年公园内有七个物种的两栖动物,每一物种都拥有丰富的种群数量。然而,1992年,在公园内所能观察到的两栖动物物种仅为四类,且每一物种的种群数量已骤然下降。约塞米蒂公园动物数量减少被归咎于始于1920年的将鲑鱼引入公园水域的做法(众所周知,鲑鱼喜食两栖动物所产的卵)。但鲑鱼的引入不可能成为约塞米蒂公园动物数量减少的真正原因,因为它无法来解释全球范围内的动物数量减少。"
  [范文正文]
  在本项论述中,信函作者的结论是,全球性水与大气污染已致使世界范围内两栖动物的数量减少。为了支持其论点,作者援引了两份时隔75年之久的研究结果,这两份结果据称可证明加利福尼亚州某一公园——即约塞米蒂国家公园——内两栖动物的数量锐减。此外,该作者撇开了动物数量减少的一个已知原因,陈述道,将鲑鱼引入公园(据称,鲑鱼喜食两栖动物所产的卵)这一做法不足以解释世界范围内两栖动物数量上的减少。这一论点有悖于简单的逻辑,犯有一系列关键性的逻辑谬误。
  首先,该论点所依据的仅仅是世界上某一特定地点——即加利福尼亚州约塞米蒂国家公园——内的两份研究。围绕着两栖动物数量减少这一问题,如果仅以世界上一个特定的地点为样品,再多数量的研究也无法得出一种精确的、适用于全世界的理论。两栖动物的具体种类、地理状况以及其他因地点而特异的变数均不允许我们作出如此一概而论的总括。一个非常具体的地点不能用作一个代表所有其他地点的模型,即使在一个特定的国家内也不行,更不用说在整个世界范围内了。信函作者没有提供任何证据将约塞米蒂公园的研究与全球环境中任何其他一处地方的任何所宣称的效果联系起来。 其次,所提及的那两项互为独立的研究时隔75年之久。没有证据可证明这两项研究是在相同的时间跨度内以相似的方式进行的,或是在约塞米蒂公园完全相同的地点进行的,或所使用的研究方法绝然相同。
  例如,第一项研究可能持续了整整一年之久,且是由两栖动物生物学领域的二十五位专家共同进行的。结果是发现了七大种类数目众多的两栖动物。相反,第二项研究可能是一位高中生孤身一人所做的学校的一个科学课题,仅为期一个星期。信函作者没有提供将此两项研究进行比较的基础,从而使两项研究在其广度、范围以及专业水准方面的可比性不得而知。 最后,信函作者指出,两栖动物种群数量的减少,已被人归咎于1920年将鲑鱼引入公园水域这一做法,但紧接着又以该论据无法解释世界范围内动物数量减少这一似是而非的依据将该论据予以否认。信函作者论述中的这一部分漫不经心地将一个极为相关的事实弃置不顾,即众所周知,鲑鱼喜食两栖动物所产的卵。这种"prove a negative "的尝试往往是这样一类人所惯用的最后伎俩,他们竭力寻找某种徒劳的尝试,力图去证明他们所宣称的事物的真理。从根本上讲,"prove a negative"是不可能的。这样一种做法是试图将论证的负担重新转嫁给不相信该论据的人。全球的环境情形与约塞米蒂公园的情形并不绝然对应。鲑鱼极有可能造成了两栖动物数量减少这一事实在缺乏进一步证据的情况下是断不能轻易予以否认的。
  概括而言,信函作者没能在全球空气和水污染与世界范围内两栖生命数量减少之间建立起任何因果关系。该作者所拿出的证据充其量也是极为苍白无力的,狭隘地将焦点集中在世界的一片极小的区域上,作为证据而援引的两项研究几乎不能说明任何问题。欲使其论点更具力度,信函作者尚需摆出直接的证据,将水和空气污染不仅仅与约塞米蒂公园的两栖动物数量减少联系起来,而且也与世界其他地方的动物数量减少联系起来。

(5):

Issue  "Colleges and universities should offer more courses on popular music, film, advertising and television because contemporary culture has much greater relevance for students than do arts and literature of the past."
  Sample Essay
  To the extent that contemporary culture is, by definition, current, it does have a much more immediate impact on students and people in general than do the arts and literature of the past. Contemporaneous events directly affect everyone alive at the time because they are occurring at precisely the same time as the individual's existence. But to paraphrase a famous philosopher: "Those who do not learn from history are doomed to repeat it." To a great extent, past arts and literature shape who we are as people at least as much as, if not more than, contemporary culture does.
  Everyone alive today is affected in one way or another by the events of the past. Past events have directly led to the way that the world is shaped today. The arts and literature are one of the most well-preserved and documented resources that can give us a direct link into what actually happened in the past. Consider the religious writings of the Bible, the Koran and those of Confucius, as well as those related to Buddhism, Hinduism and all other religions. These writings directly relate to, and in some cases to a great extent control, the behavior of human beings today even though most were written hundreds if not thousands of years ago. Artworks relating to these religions also have a profound effect. Consider Michelangelo's work in the Sistine Chapel at the Vatican, or the vast myriad of historic Buddhist statues throughout Asia, or the ancient Muslim mosques throughout the Middle East and Central Asia. It would be difficult to argue that contemporary culture has more relevance to today's students when compared with the relevance of these examples of past arts and literature.
  At times it is difficult to determine what exactly is the difference between contemporary culture and the arts and literature of the past. Shakespeare's classic writings are continuously being adapted into current movies that are often big hits with students and the general population as a whole. Millions of people every year view classic works of art in museums all over the world. Readings of religious texts have never gone out of style with a large part of the world's population. Clashes between centuries-old cultures and religions, such as that of Western countries and Islamic extremists and that of Hindus and Muslims in India, demonstrate that the religious artifacts that could be called arts and literature of the past are very much a part of contemporary culture.
  While the past can certainly not be ignored, a large part of what students must learn at university is based on contemporary culture. Most religious learning, at least of one's own religion, occurs either at home or early on in a student's education. At the university level, studies of politics, business and the computer sciences must deal in great detail with the latest advances in contemporary culture in order to remain up to date and relevant. Other subjects, such as mathematics, agriculture, and the arts and literature themselves look largely to the past for the core knowledge that is taught in these courses. The application of these lessons from the past are entirely appropriate to help put contemporary culture into some type of historical context that can help students to understand and comprehend the rapidly changing world that they are living in.
  It would seem self-evident that a properly educated university student must find a balance between studying contemporary culture without neglecting the study of arts and literature of the past. The study of one is not mutually exclusive of the study of the other. The benefits of a well-rounded education come from not only knowing the state of the world as it exists today but also in knowing how the world arrived at this stage of development in the first place.

  观点陈述型作文/[题目]
  "学院和大学应该开设更多通俗音乐、电影、广告和电视方面的课程,因为当代文化要比昔日的艺术和文学对于学生具有远为密切的联系。"
  [范文正文]
  只要当代文化——依照其定义——具有当代性,它无疑比昔日的艺术和文学对学生乃至普通大众具有一种远为直接的影响。同时代的事件会直接影响到生活在那一时代的每一个人,因为它们的发生与这个人的生存正值同时。但这里我们可以复述一位著名哲学家的话,"那些无法从历史中汲取教训者注定会重蹈覆辙".在相当大的程度上,昔日的艺术和文学造就了我们现如今的情状,其作用即使并不甚于当代文化,至少与当代文化相同。 生活于当今时代的每个人以一种或另一种方式深受过去事件的影响。昔日的事件直接导致了世界目前的运转方式。艺术和文学是保存和记载得最为完善的一种资源,它们能使我们与过去实际发生过的事情直接联系起来。 不妨考虑一下《圣经》,《可兰经》一类的宗教著作,孔子的著述,以及那些与佛教、印度教和所有其他宗教相关的著作。这些直接地与当今时代人们的行为相关,并在某些情形中在相当大的程度上控制着当今时代人们的行为,虽然它们大多数创作于数百年、甚至数千年之前。与这些宗教相关的艺术品同样也产生了深远的影响。我们不妨考虑一下梵蒂冈西斯廷教堂内米开朗琪罗的作品,或遍布亚洲的无数具有历史性意义的佛教像,或者散布在整个中东和中亚地区的古代穆斯林清真寺。与这些过去的艺术和文学实例的相关性相比,当代文化被说成与当今学生更密切相关,这一论点是难以成立的。
  有些时候,人们难以确定当代文化与过去的艺术和文学的差异究竟何在。莎士比亚的经典之作不断地被改编成当代电影,常常能成为学生和普通大众的大热门。每年,全世界数百万人在博物馆观赏古典艺术作品。宗教文本的阅读对于世界相当大的一部分人口而言从来就不失为一种风尚。数个世纪古老的文化与宗教之间的冲突,如西方国家与伊斯兰极端主义者之间的冲突,以及印度国内印度教徒与穆斯林教徒之间的冲突,例证着那些可被称为昔日艺术和文学的宗教事物在很大程度上实乃当代文化的一部分。
  虽然过去无疑不能被淡忘,但学生在大学中所学内容,很大一部分是基于当代文化的。大多数宗教学习,至少一个人自身的宗教的学习,或始于家庭,或始于学生受教育的早期。在大学这一层次上,对政治、商科以及计算机科学的学习,与当代文化中的最新进步深深相涉,以便使人与时俱进,与时代紧密相关。其它的学科,如数学、农业、艺术与文学,很大程度上是从过去的源泉获取这些课程中所传授的核心知识。这些来自过去的课程的应用完全是恰当的,有助于将当代文化置于某种历史架构之中,去帮助学生领略和理解他们所生活于其中的那个变化迅速的世界。
  有一点似乎是不证自明的,即一个受过恰当教育的大学生必须在学习当代文化与不偏废昔日艺术和文学之间寻找到某种平衡。对两者的学习并非互为排斥。一种综合全面的教育,其益处不仅在于让人知道当今世界所处的状态,而且亦在于首先要让人弄清世界是何以抵达目前这一发展阶段的。

(6):

Topic  The following is a letter to the editor of the Atticus City newspaper
  "Former Mayor Durant owes an apology to the city of Atticus. Both the damage to the River Bridge, which connects Atticus to Hartley, and the traffic problems we have long experienced on the bridge were actually caused 20 years ago by Durant. After all, he is the one who approved the construction of the bridge. If he had approved a wider and better-designed bridge, on which approximately the same amount of public money would have been spent, none of the damage or problems would have occurred. Instead, the River Bridge has deteriorated far more rapidly over the past 20 years than has the much longer Derby Bridge up the river. Even though the winters have been severe in the past several years, this is no excuse for the negligence and wastefulness of Durant."
  Sample Essay
  The author of this letter concludes in his or her argument that former Mayor Durant should apologize to the city of Atticus because he is at fault for damage that has occurred over a twenty-year time span to the River Bridge. The author also blames Mayor Durant for long-time traffic problems on the bridge, stating that Durant actually caused these problems twenty years before because he approved the construction of the bridge and did not approve a wider and better-designed bridge. The arguer may have a personal vendetta against Mayor Durant but the elements stated in the argument do not support such an accusation.
  First of all, the author squarely places blame on Mayor Durant for the simple act of approving the construction of the bridge. There is no evidence presented that merely approving the building of the bridge had anything whatsoever to do with the damage that has occurred or the traffic problems on the bridge. It is entirely possible that Mr. Durant simply approved the idea of constructing the bridge and not the design of the bridge or the contractor that built it. Simply approving the construction of the bridge does not in and of itself cause damage to that bridge or any resulting traffic problems.
  In addition, the arguer concludes that if Mayor Durant had approved a wider and better-designed bridge that there would be no damage or traffic problems, an argument for which there is no basis of proof offered. It is a well-known fact that bridges are subject to deterioration, particularly over a period of twenty years, no matter how well designed they may be. The author also fails to offer any supporting evidence to show that a more durable bridge with fewer traffic problems could have been built for approximately the same amount of public money. It seems likely that a wider bridge would have more damage problems rather than fewer, and probably would have cost more as well, whether public or private funds were used.
  Furthermore, the arguer mentions that the River Bridge has deteriorated much more rapidly than the much longer Derby Bridge up the river. This groundless argument fails to take into account other possible reasons for the discrepancy in the deterioration of the two bridges such as traffic loads, location and other environmental variables. It is possible that the Derby Bridge was much more protected from the elements and rarely used by heavy truck traffic, for example. The author gives no basis for a direct comparison between the two bridges other than his or her personal opinion.
  Finally, the letter writer refers to the "negligence and wastefulness" of Mayor Durant. The only action cited by the author is the approval of the bridge in the first place, which proves neither neglect nor wasting of anything. The sentence itself contains a non sequitur - firstly discussing the severe winters of the past several years, and then accusing Mr. Durant of waste and neglect. This accusation is unwarranted as well as unsupported in the author's argument.
  In summary, the author simply makes groundless accusations without providing any real support for his or her argument. To make the argument convincing, the author would have to provide evidence that Mayor Durant approved a faulty bridge design or an unqualified construction company that caused the bridge's damage and traffic problems. The author should have also provided supporting details that show that the damage to the bridge is out of the ordinary and directly caused by Mayor Durant's decision to use inadequate construction materials or a poor design. Without more support, the author's point of view is unconvincing and not well reasoned.
  (605 words)

  [题目]
  下述文字乃一封致《Atticus都市报》的信函:"前市长Durant应向全体Atticus 市民道歉。无论是将Atticus 市和Hartley市连结起来的跨河大桥所遭到的毁坏,还是我们在大桥上长期以来所经历的交通问题,实际上都是由Durant 市长在20年之前一手铸成的。无论如何,是他批准了大桥的开工建设。如果他所批准建设的大桥更宽一些,设计得更精良一些,而所投入其上的公共款项大致相等的话,那么,无论是大桥的受损,还是交通拥堵问题均不会发生。然则,在过去20年期间,跨河大桥现在则远比上游河段上长度远长得多的Derby河大桥更为快速地遭到毁损。尽管过去几年中冬天的日子甚为严酷,但我们绝不能原谅Durant 市长的玩忽职守和浪费。"
  [范文正文]
  本信函的作者在其论述中得出结论,认为前市长Durant 应向Atticus全市作出正式道歉,因为对于过去20年中跨河大桥所遭受的损坏他应引咎自责。作者亦责怪Durant市长造成了大桥上长期以来的交通问题。作者陈述道,由于Durant市长批准了现在这座大桥的开工建设,而没有批准一座更宽、设计更精良的大桥,故他在20年之前实际上就已铸成了上述这些问题。提出这些论点的作者可以对Durant市长有此个人怨仇,但论述中所陈述的各项内容并不能为这样一种责怪提供依据。
  首先,作者斩钉截铁地将罪责归咎于Durant市长,仅仅因为他批准了大桥的建造这一行为本身。但作者没能提供证据证明,仅仅只是批准该座大桥的建造这一行为与大桥本身所遭受的毁坏或大桥上的交通问题有任何必然的联系。完全有可能的是,Durant先生仅仅只是准许了建造这座大桥的想法,而并没有认可该大桥的设计或建造该大桥的承包商。纯粹去批准大桥的建造,这一行为就其本身而言并不会导致大桥受毁或造成任何交通问题。
  此外,论述者得出结论,认为如果Durant市长批准建造一座更宽、设计更精良的大桥的话,则既不会发生大桥受损,也不会有交通拥堵的问题。对于该论据,论述者也没有提出任何证明依据。一个众所周知的事实是,所有桥梁的状况都会每况愈下,尤其是经历了20年这样长的时间之后,无论它们当时设计得是如何精良。信函作者也没能提供任何能起到支持作用的证据来证明,人们可以用大致同等数量的公共款项建起一座更为持久的、交通问题更少的大桥。有可能的是,一座桥面更宽的大桥所遭受的损坏可能更多,而非更少。也有可能是,所投入的资金将更大,无论所使用的是公共款项还是私人资金。
  再者,论述者提到跨河大桥比上游河段更长的Derby大桥老化的速度来得快。这一毫无根据的论点没能考虑到导致两座大桥老化状况差异的其他有可能的因素,如交通负荷、桥址、以及其他环境方面的变数。例如,Derby大桥受到了更好的保护,受自然因素影响较少,很少有重型卡车类的交通工具通过其上。除了其武断的个人看法以外,信函作者没有拿出任何依据来在两座大桥之间作出直接的比较。
  最后,信函作者提及Durant市长的"玩忽职守及浪费".该作者所援引的有关Durant市长的唯一的所作所为仅是早先时候对大桥建造的批准,而这一点既不能证明任何的玩忽职守,也不能证明任何浪费。该句子本身包含了一个不根据前提的推理——首先讨论过去几年中气候严酷的冬天,紧接着责怪Durant先生的浪费与疏忽。在作者的论述中,这一谴责既无正当理由,也缺乏依据。
  概而言之,信函作者所做的只是提出一些毫无根据的责怪,而没有拿出任何真正的依据来证明其论点。要使其论点更具说服力,该作者应拿出证据来证明,Durant市长所批准的是一份有严重失误的大桥建设设计方案,或一个没有资质的建筑公司,从而导致了大桥的受毁和交通问题。该作者也应该提供有支持作用的细节,以表明大桥受损程度超乎寻常,并且是因为Durant市长决定使用劣质建筑材料或采用了一份蹩脚的设计方案而直接造成的。在没有更为充分的依据这一条件下,该作者的论点无法令人置信,并且也显得没有得到充分的论证。

(7):

Issue  The following is from an editorial in the Midvale Observer, a local newspaper.
  "Ever since the 1950's, when television sets began to appear in the average home, the rate of crimes committed by teenagers in the country of Alta has steadily increased. This increase in teenage crime parallels the increase in violence shown on television. According to several national studies, even very young children who watch a great number of television shows featuring violent scenes display more violent behavior within their home environment than do children who do not watch violent shows. Furthermore, in a survey conducted by the Observer, over 90 percent of the respondents were parents who indicated that prime-time television——programs that are shown between 7 p.m. and 9 p.m.——should show less violence. Therefore, in order to lower the rate of teenage crime in Alta, television viewers should demand that television programmers reduce the amount of violence shown during prime time."
  The author of this editorial states that the rate of teenage crime in the country of Alta has increased along with the increase in violence shown on television, beginning with the 1950's when television was introduced in the average home. In addition, the author states that several national surveys have shown that young children watching violent television programs are more prone to violence than children who do not. The write also says that a survey indicated that ninety percent of parents responding said that prime-time programs should show less violence. Finally, the author comes to the conclusion that to lower the rate of teenage crime in Alta, television watchers should demand a reduction in violence shown during prime time. This argument suffers from several critical fallacies.
  Firstly, the writer equates the rate of increase in teenage crime in Alta to the increase in violence shown on television but gives no causal linkage other than the similar time periods. The author makes no distinction between types of crimes - whether they are violent or nonviolent crimes by teenagers. Furthermore, there are several possible alternative causes for the increase in teen crimes. For example, perhaps all types of crimes have increased for all ages, or maybe the police are now doing a better job of catching teenage criminals than they were before. Perhaps the reason for the increase is simply an increase in the overall population and that as a percentage of the population, teen crime is even less than it was before. Without ruling out these and other causes, the argument fails to convince by showing no causal linkage between television violence and teenage crime.
  Secondly, the author mentions national studies that show that young children that watch violent programs show more violent behavior at home than children who do not watch such programs. This argument fails on two levels - one by assuming that children and teenagers are equally affected by television programs; and two by again assuming that there is some type of cause and effect relationship between television violence and teenage crime. Young children and teenagers are not the same and it should not be assumed that more violent behavior within the home leads to crimes outside as these children grow into teenagers.
  Thirdly, the author offers a survey showing that ninety percent of the respondents were parents who indicated that prime time television programs should show less violence. The survey methods are not discussed - it is possible that the sample was improperly chosen or somehow predisposed to include parents that are very much opposed to television violence. Additionally, it is possible that such parents are far more vocal in their opinions than those who care little or not at all about prime time television violence, again skewing the results of the survey. Even assuming the veracity of the sample population surveyed, it is not logical to associate television violence with teen crime solely on that basis.
  Finally, the author makes the gratuitous assumption that simply having television viewers demand that television programmers reduce the amount of violence during prime time will lower the rate of teenage crime in Alta. Regardless of the flawed arguments previously discussed, simply demanding a change will have no effect whatsoever on teen crime. To strengthen his or her argument, the author needs to show some direct causal linkage between television violence and teen crime rather than making vague and unsupported comparisons purporting to show a link. There is no proof given either that television violence of any kind causes teenage crime or that a reduction in prime time violence will keep teenagers from breaking the law.
  (602 words)

  [题目]
  下述文字摘自一份地方性报纸《Midvale观察家》所发表的社论。
  "自二十世纪五十年代以来,当电视机开始出现于寻常百姓家庭时,Alta国内青少年犯罪率已呈现出持续上升的势头。这一青少年犯罪行为的上升与电视上所播放的暴力画面的增加成正比。按照几份全国性调查报告,在那些大量观看了涉及到暴力场面的电视节目的青少年中,即使是极为年幼的孩童在其家庭环境中也要比那些不看暴力节目的孩童表现出更多的暴力行为。此外,在一项由《Midvale观察家》所进行的调查中,有90%的受访者为父母亲,他(她)们表示黄金时段的电视内容——即晚上7点到9点所播放的节目——应该减少播放暴力内容。据此,为了降低Alta国内青少年犯罪率,电视观众应该要求电视节目编播者减少黄金时段所播放的暴力画面数量。"
  [范文正文]
  本社论作者陈述道,Alta国内青少年犯罪率伴随着电视所播放的暴力场面的增加而上升。这一情形始于二十世纪五十年代,因为电视在当时被引入到普通百姓的家庭。此外,该作者陈述道,几项全国性调查显示,观看暴力电视节目的孩子比那些不看同类节目的孩子更易于形成暴力倾向。社论作者还指出,一份调查表明,受访的90%的父母亲认为,黄金时段的电视节目不应含有那么多的暴力场面。最后,作者得出结论,认为要想降低Alta国内的青少年犯罪率,电视观众应要求减少黄金时段所播放的暴力画面。这一论述犯有若干关键性的逻辑谬误。
  首先,社论作者将Alta国内青少年犯罪率的上升与电视所播放的暴力场面的增加相提并论,但除了二者在时间上吻合以外,没能给出任何因果关系。该作者没有对不同的犯罪种类作出区分——青少年所犯的罪行是属于暴力型的还是非暴力型的。此外,对于青少年犯罪数量的增加,还存在着其他一些有可能的原因。例如,或许所有年龄段的所有类型的犯罪行为都呈上升态势,或者也有可能,警察现在要比过去更擅长于抓捕青少年犯罪者了。更有可能的是,犯罪上升的原因仅仅只是人口总量的上升所致,并且,作为人口总量中的一个比例,青少年犯罪现在甚至低于以前的程度。如不排除掉这些以及其他的原因,社论中的论点便无法令人信服,因为作者没有在电视暴力和青少年犯罪之间建立起任何因果关系。
  其次,社论作者提到,有几份全国性研究表明,观看暴力节目的孩童在家里比不看此类节目的孩童表现出了更多的暴力行为。这一论点在二个层面上显得站不住脚——首先是假设孩童和青少年受到电视节目同等程度的影响;第二是又一次假定在电视暴力与青少年犯罪之间存在着某种因果关系。孩童与青少年毕竟并不相同,我们不能做这样的假定,即家庭中较为暴力的那些行为必然会随着这些孩子长大成为青少年而发展成为犯罪行为。
  第三,社论作者给出一项调查,以期证明90%的回答问卷的受访者均为父母亲一类的人,他(她)们提出黄金时段的电视节目不应该播放如此多的暴力镜头。但社论中没有讨论该调查所使用的调查方法是什么。情况有可能是,该调查的样本选择得并不恰当,或在某种程度上侧重于只将那些对电视暴力甚感厌恶的父母亲囊括于样本之中。再则,情况也可能是,这些父母亲在表达其意见时要比那些对黄金时段电视暴力漠不关心或满不在乎的人来得语气强烈得多,这样便再度使调查结果失之偏颇。即使我们假定所调查的人口样本是真实的,仅仅以此为依据将电视暴力和青少年犯罪联系起来也是不合逻辑的。 最后,社论作者作出一不必要的假设,即只要有电视观众要求电视节目编播者减少黄金时段暴力内容的播放量便可降低Alta国内的青少年犯罪率。即使不考虑此前已讨论过的那些含有缺陷的论点,只是去要求作出某种改变并不会对青少年犯罪产生任何影响。若要增强其论点的逻辑性,社论作者必须在电视暴力与青少年犯罪之间表明某种直接的因果关系,而不是作出某些含糊其辞的和缺乏依据的比较,声称存在着某种联系。该作者既没有拿出证据证明任何种类的电视暴力导致了青少年的犯罪,也没能证明黄金时段电视暴力的减少将会防范青少年的违法乱纪行为。

(8):

Issue  "In many countries it is now possible to turn on the television and view government at work. Watching these proceedings can help people understand the issues that affect their lives. The more kinds of government proceedings - trials, debates, meetings, etc. - that are televised, the more society will benefit."
  Sample Essay
  Anything that makes a country's government more transparent is certainly a good thing, at least in democratic countries. These societies have a great deal to gain by being able to watch their elected government officials in action. But to broadly state that the more government proceedings that are televised, the more society will benefit is to ignore the fact that sometimes, less is more. Some types of proceedings can even be adversely affected if televised, making society worse off rather than giving it a benefit. Some types of governmental proceedings should receive more televised coverage, but there are some that should probably receive less to ensure that they are properly conducted.
  One example of the possible negative effects of televising all governmental proceedings was the trial in the United States of accused murderer and former National Football League superstar O.J. Simpson. The trial was televised and became a huge media spectacle, captivating the nation's attention during the entire trial. Attorneys were well aware that the proceedings were being televised and almost behaved as if they were acting in a movie. The spotlight was so unrelenting that the circus atmosphere affected even the judge. The presence of television cameras and the effect of the intense media coverage led to a trial like no other, and adversely affected the natural progression of the trial. The participants played to the cameras rather than focusing on the task at hand. Largely because of television, many people would argue that justice was not served during this particular trial.
  On the other hand, television of the day-to-day workings of government in action provides direct insight into how a government actually works. Because the television cameras are there everyday, the governmental officials become accustomed to them and are no longer greatly affected by their presence. In this way, society benefits because they are able to see what is happening as it happens. The government in action is no longer hidden behind such a veil of secrecy so that no one knows the mysterious ways of their elected officials.
  One of the problems with stating that the more governmental proceedings that are televised, the better of a society is, is that people might come to believe that they are seeing everything when in fact, a television camera can only see part of what is happening no matter how many cameras there are. Much of what happens in government takes place "behind the scenes", not necessarily in full view of the cameras in the meeting place. While to an extent "seeing is believing", quite often it is what you don't see that makes the difference. Merely televising governmental proceedings certainly enhances understanding, but to fully understand the process a person would actually have to actively participate in that process.
  Another problem with the statement that the more televised governmental proceedings, the better, is that it assumes that people actually watch the proceedings when they are broadcast. There is a television channel in the United States that broadcasts Congressional proceedings every day, but few people watch it. Only when some big issue comes up for a debate or for a vote does a significant number of people tune in. To merely televise governmental proceedings will not affect society unless society watches these events.
  Society can certainly benefit from the television coverage of certain governmental proceedings. To actually see the elected officials in action can bring an extra element of understanding into the inner workings of a government. Politicians can be held accountable for their actions while they are being "watched" by the television cameras. No longer can they hide in anonymity while they are conducting the business of the people. But not all governmental proceedings should be televised. There are times when secrecy is an absolute requirement for making sure that the correct decisions are made.
  ( 694 words)

  观点陈述型作文/[题目]
  "在许多国家,人们现在可以打开电视,便可以看到政府是如何运作的。观看到这样一些程序能够帮助人们理解那些影响到其生活的问题。电视转播政府程序——审判,辩论,会议等不一而足——的种类越多,则社会将会获益更多。"
  [范文正文]
  任何能使一个国家的政府更透明的事情无疑总是一件好事情,至少在民主国家中是如此。这些社会通过得以看到他们所选举的政府官员在做些什么而获益匪浅。但是,如果只是笼统地说政府程序转播得越多,社会就会获益更多,那么,这便忽视了这样一个事实,即有些时候,转播得越少越好。有些类型的程序如果进行转播,则甚至会受到负面影响,使社会处于更糟糕的境地,而不是带来任何裨益。有些类型的政府程序应获得更多的电视报道,但有些应该减少报道,以确保这些程序能恰当地进行。
  转播所有政府程序会引发负面作用,这方面的例子是美国对所指控的谋杀者和前美式足球全国联赛超级明星O.J.辛普逊的审判。审判全程转播,成为媒体一大焦点,在整个审判进程中吸引了全国的注意力。律师们清楚地知道,整个审判程序被转播,他们的所作所为几乎像电影演戏那样。媒体的焦光灯如此穷追不舍,以致于那种马戏团般的氛围甚至波及到主审法官。电视镜头的存在以及密集的媒体报道效果致使这场审判史无前例,严重影响到这次审判的正常进程。参与者在镜头面前装腔作势,根本不专注于手头应做的工作。许多人会认为,很大程度上由于电视的缘故,在这场特定的审判中,正义并未得到申张。
  另一方面,有关政府日常实际工作的电视转播能让人们直接地深入了解政府实际上是怎样运转的。由于电视镜头每天都在那里,政府官员们便变得习以为常,不再会因为它们的存在而受太大的影响。这样,社会就能获益,因为民众能够亲眼目睹实际所在发生的事情。工作中的政府不再像以前那样藏匿在一层秘密的面纱背后,从而使人无从知晓所被选举的官员的神秘行为。
  被电视转播的政府程序越多,一个社会就会变得更好,此番陈述的问题之一是,人们可能会以为他们能目睹一切,但在实际上,电视镜头所捕捉到的可能只是所有发生的事情的一部分,无论有多少电视镜头。政府内发生的相当一部分事情是在"幕后"完成的,并不必定是在开会场所众目睽睽之下进行的。尽管在某种程度上"眼见为实",但在相当多的时候,不为你所见的事情才起着决定性的作用。纯粹去电视转播政府的各项程序,当然能增进理解,但要充分理解某一过程,则人们须实际上积极地参与到这一过程中来。
  政府程序电视转播越多越好,这一陈述的另一个问题是,这一陈述认为当政府程序被转播时,人们实际上正观看着这些程序。美国有一个电视频道,每天播放国会程序,但看这一频道的人寥寥无几。只有当某些重大问题需要进行辨论或进行投票时,才会有大量的人观看这一频道。纯粹电视播放政府程序并不会影响到社会,除非社会观看这些事件。
  社会无疑能得益于电视对某些政府程序的报道。亲眼目睹民选官员处理政府事务,能带来一个额外的理解因素,来弄清政府的内在运转机制。当政治家们被置于电视镜头的"注视"时,可以使其对其行为负责。他们在处理公众事务时再也无法隐名埋姓。但政府程序并非应该全部进行电视转播。有些时候,为了确保能作出正确的决策,隐秘应成为一种绝对的要求。

(9):

Issue  The following appeared in the editorial section of a health and fitness magazine.
  "In a study of the effects of exercise on longevity, medical researchers tracked 500 middle-aged men over a 20-year period. The subjects represented a variety of occupations in several different parts of the country and responded to an annual survey in which they were asked: How often and how strenuously do you exercise? Of those who responded, the men who reported that they engaged in vigorous outdoor exercise nearly every day lived longer than the men who reported that they exercised mildly only once or twice a week. Given the clear link that this study establishes between longevity and exercise, doctors should not recommend moderate exercise to their patients but should instead encourage vigorous outdoor exercise on a daily basis."
  It is natural to assume that exercise would have a positive effect on the length of life for middle-aged men given all of the medical literature that has been published in the past showing a positive correlation between exercise and longevity. In this particular argument, the writer puts forth a study purporting to track five hundred middle-aged men with different occupations in different parts of the country. The survey was apparently conducted on the basis of an annual survey asking how often and how strenuously these men exercised. The writer not only concludes that there is a clear link between longevity and exercise, but that doctors should not recommend moderate exercise, rather vigorous outdoor exercise on a daily basis to all their patients. This writer's argument fails to convince in a number of areas due to several lapses in logical thinking.
  The first and most glaring error in logic lies in the fact that the results of only two types of exercising men are reported: those that exercise strenuously outdoors almost every day and those that only had mild exercise once or twice per week. There are no other results mentioned from the survey, such as the results of men who exercise vigorously indoors every day, or those that exercise moderately either indoors or outdoors three or four times per week. Additionally, it is likely that those men that are exercising outdoors vigorously and almost every day are already in better health than those men that only exercise mildly once or twice per week. Unhealthy men, either due to obesity, smoking or other health-related problems, would naturally be expected to exercise less and die sooner than those apparently healthy men who are physically able to exercise strenuously every day.
  Furthermore, the writer indicates that the survey looked at men in different parts of the country with a variety of occupations. It would follow that men that can exercise vigorously outdoors almost every day must live in more favorable climates for such exercise. Milder weather that permits outdoor exercise would likely be healthier for any men rather than the harsher climates that may be present in other parts of the country. In addition, some occupations such as a policeman, firefighter or steelworker are naturally more dangerous than others, leading to a possibly reduced life span. The writer fails to take into account any possible disparity in longevity that may be caused by climatic differences where the men lived or due to their occupations, thus weakening the argument and its conclusion.
  Finally, the argument suffers from a critical flaw in its conclusion when the writer states that doctors should not recommend moderate exercise for their patients, instead stating that they should only encourage vigorous outdoor exercise on a daily basis. This conclusion is supported by absolutely no evidence in the argument - indeed moderate exercise is not even mentioned until the end of the editorial. Additionally, the argument fails to take into account that the study only addresses men, not women or children that are also doctors' patients. Furthermore, for some men, women or children, outdoor vigorous exercise on a daily basis might actually be detrimental to their health, such as those at risk for a heart attack or living in harsh climates.
  In summary, the writer fails to show that doctors should recommend vigorous daily outdoor exercise rather than moderate exercise whether it is for men, women or children. To strengthen the argument, evidence should be presented that directly links strenuous outdoor exercise on a daily basis for men as well as all doctors' patients before any such recommendation should be adopted. This weak argument might actually cause more damage to patients' health than it would prevent.
  (615 words)

  [题目]
  下述文字刊登于某健康与健美杂志的社论栏:"在一项有关运动对长寿的影响的研究中,医疗研究人员在为期20年的时间中跟踪调查了500名中年男性。被调查对象代表着该国若干个不同地区的形形色色的职业,他们对每年度调查中的二个问题——你运动的频繁程度如何?运动的力度如何?——作出回答。在所有作出回答的人中间,那些汇报说几乎每天都从事剧烈户外运动的男性,其寿命要高于那些汇报说每周只从事一次或二次轻微运动的男性。鉴于本项研究在长寿与运动之间所确立的明显关系,大夫们不应向其病人建议适度的运动,而应该鼓励病人每天从事剧烈的户外活动。"
  [范文正文]
  鉴于过去所出版的医学文献均表明,在运动和长寿之间存在着一种积极的关系,人们自然会认为运动会对中年男性的寿命产生一种极积的影响。在这段特定的论述中,作者引用一份研究,声称该研究对500名本国不同地区从事不同职业的男性进行了跟踪调查。这份研究显然每年进行一次问卷调查,询问这些男性从事运动的频繁程度以及力度如何。该作者不仅得出结论,认为长寿和运动之间存在着明显的联系,而且也认为大夫不应该向病人推荐适度的运动,而应该鼓励所有的病人每天都应进行剧烈的户外运动。鉴于其逻辑思维中的若干差错,该作者的论述在诸多方面无法令人信服。 逻辑推理中第一个也是最彰著的谬误在于这样一个事实,即研究仅报告了从事运动的二类男性的结果,第一类为几乎每天都要去户外做剧烈运动的男性,第二类为一星期只进行一至二次适度运动的男性。该调查中的其他结果均未提及,诸如每天在室内进行剧烈运动的男性的结果,或者那些每周三至四次在室内或在室外进行运动的男性的结果。此外,那些在室外作剧烈运动且几乎每天都进行运动的男性,可能比那些仅每周作一至二次适度运动的人早就处在更佳的身体状况之中。身体不够健康的男性,或因为肥胖,或因为抽烟,或因为其他与健康相关的问题,自然不被期望去作那么多的运动,否则,与那些显然是身体健康的、拥有每天进行剧烈运动体能的男性相比,他们可能会死得更早。 另一方面,该作者表示,此项调查所研究的男性分布在该国不同的地区,从事着不尽相同的职业。我们自然会得出这样的结论,即那些能够在户外几乎每天都从事剧烈运动的男性,他们必定生活在较适宜于这类运动的气候之中。允许户外运动的较为温和的气候无疑要比存在于该国其他地区较为恶劣的气候对任何人的身体更为有利。除此之外,诸如警察、消防员以及钢铁工人这些职业,自然要比其他类别的职业更加危险,从而导致一个人的寿命可能缩短。该作者没能考虑到任何有可能由人们所在地区的气候差异或其职业差异所致的寿命长短方面的差别,从而削弱了其论据及其结论。 最后,当作者作出这样的陈述,即大夫不应该向其病人建议适度的运动,而只应该鼓励每日进行户外剧烈的运动时,其论述的结论中便产生了一个关键性的缺陷。所得出的结论在论述中绝对找不到任何可资佐证的依据——甚至,只是直到社论结束之处才提及适度的运动。此外,此项论述没能注意到所作的研究仅涉及男性,而非涉及同样也作为大夫病人的女性和儿童。再者,对于某些男性、女性、及儿童而言,每天的户外剧烈运动实际上反而会危害他们的健康,尤其是对于那些有心脏病危险或生活在恶劣气候中的人们来说。 归纳而言,本社论作者没能证明大夫们为什么就应该推荐剧烈的每日户外运动,而不是适度的运动,无论病人是男性、女性、还是孩子。若需要强化其论点,作者应摆出证据,将男性每日剧烈的户外运动和所有大夫的病人的运动直接联系起来,然后才采纳任何这样的建议。这一薄弱的论据实际上有可能引起的对病人健康的伤害,会远超过它所可能防范的伤害。

(10):

Issue  "The purpose of many advertisements is to make consumers want to buy a product so that they will 'be like' the person in the ad. This practice is effective because it not only sells products but also helps people feel better about themselves."
  Sample Essay
  Many advertisements do indeed use attractive models or celebrities to entice consumers into buying the products that are being promoted. Who would not like to look like the beautiful models that are depicted enjoying the product? Who would not like to be like a Michael Jordan or Tiger Woods? To a certain extent, buying products to emulate the persons shown in the advertisements can make a person feel better about him or herself. But this type of advertisement can be a double-edged sword - when the product does not make the person "be like" the person in the advertisement, there can be disappointment and disillusionment with the product.
  Marketing departments have long known that using attractive models and celebrity endorsers can help to persuade consumers to buy a product. Some customers may actually believe that buying and using the product will make them "be like" the people featured in the ad. For other consumers, there is probably at least some subconscious reaction that causes them to believe that they will in fact assume some of the characteristics of the person depicted in the advertisement. Consumers with a lower sense of self-esteem are more likely to buy a product based on the motivation that they will become like someone else.
  Proof of this marketing axiom can be found by simply looking at advertisements from around the world. People featured in advertisements are almost always good-looking, healthy and physically fit. Marketers are savvy enough, and enough market research has proven that, consumers are motivated to buy by advertisements featuring attractive models. Even advertisements that are aimed at the older people of a population will feature attractive older people. Although there has been some criticism about the effect of showing only "beautiful people" on the general population, particularly on young women, advertisers know that beauty sells. But whether this practice makes people feel better about themselves depends on the individual and is certainly open to debate.
  Some individuals with a low sense of self-esteem, especially younger people, may purchase products in an attempt to make themselves be like the person featured in the advertisement. Young women in particular may buy cosmetics or clothing advertised by beautiful models in an attempt to look the same as them. Young men may buy athletic shoes or apparel in an attempt to perform athletically in the same way that the person featured in the advertisement plays. These people may then become further discouraged when they use or wear the product and find out that they are the same person that they were before. Buying the product hasn't changed anything.
  There are others that may derive a certain sense of satisfaction over the fact that they wear the same underwear as some beautiful models or that they drink the same soft drink as Britney Spears. These people in general already have a good sense of who they are and don't expect a particular product to perform miracles for them. For these people, the purchase of the product is not so much as an image enhancer; it is more of a form of self-expression. Perhaps drinking a Pepsi-Cola makes them feel younger or wearing Nike shoes makes them feel more athletic, no matter how old or inactive they may be in reality. In this manner, it is possible that advertising can make people feel better about themselves.
  Marketing and advertising absolutely must appeal to people in one way or another to be successful. Research has shown that using celebrities and attractive people can motivate consumers to purchase a product. In whatever manner, advertisers hope that they actually can make people feel better about themselves, because that can help foster repeat purchases of a product. Ultimately, whether an advertisement makes a person feel better about him or herself depends on the individual and how they perceive themselves as compared to the particular advertisement in question.
  (692 words)

  观点陈述型作文[题目]
  "许多广告的目的在于,通过使顾客购买某种商品,从而让他们觉得他们将会和广告中的那个人'相差无几'.这一做法甚为有效,因为它不仅能售出产品,而且也帮助人们有更好的自我感觉。"
  [范文正文]
  许多广告确实使用迷人的模特或名人来诱使顾客购买所推销的产品。试想,谁不想看上去像广告所描绘的那个正在享受该产品的漂亮模特呢?谁不喜欢成为麦克尔·乔丹或泰格·伍兹呢?在某种程度上,通过购买产品从而去模仿广告中所表现的人物可以使人产生较好的自我感觉。但这类广告却是一把双刃剑——当产品不能使购买者与广告人物"相差无几"时,人们就会对产品产生失落感和幻灭感。
  营销部门早就深知,使用迷人的模特和名流有助于说服顾客顾买某一产品。某些顾客可能实际上相信购买和使用该产品会使自己与广告中描绘的人物"相仿".对某一些顾客来说,至少有可能存在某种潜意识的反应,使他们相信他们在实际上可以获取广告中所表现的人物的某些特征。自尊感较低的顾客更有可能购买某一产品,其动机便是他们将能变得类似于另一个人。
  要证明这一营销公理,我们仅须审视一下世界各地的广告。广告所刻划的人物几乎总是漂亮,健康,精力充沛。营销人员个个老谋深算,有足够的市场研究已证明,有迷人模特的广告可激发起顾客的购买欲望。即使是面向老年人的广告也会展示迷人的老年人形象。尽管只展示"漂亮脸蛋"对普通民众,尤其是对年轻妇女姓,所产生的影响已遭到某些批评,但广告商深知,美能带来商业效益。但该做法是否真能使人有更好的自我感觉,这因人而异,且值得商榷。
  某些自尊感低的个人,尤其是年轻人,他们购买产品有可能是试图让自己类似于广告中所表现的人物。特别是年轻女性,她们购买那些漂亮模特作广告宣传的化妆品或服饰,可能是为了能和广告人物显得一模一样。年轻男性购买运动鞋或服装,试图能在运动方面与广告中的人物相媲美。然而,当这些人使用或穿上广告中的产品,却发现他们还是他们以前的那个样子时,他们会倍受打击。购买广告产品并没有改变什么。
  另外有一些人可能会从这样的事实中获得某种满足感,即他们穿着和漂亮模特一样的内衣或喝着与Britney Spears一样的饮料。这些人普遍而言早已清楚自己是什么样的人,并不希望某一特定产品为他们创造奇迹。对这些人来说,购买产品与其说是在提升自己的形象,还不如说是一种自我表现。或许,喝百事可乐使他们觉得年轻,或穿上耐克鞋使他们觉得更象一个运动员,不管他们实际上年龄有多大或多么的不爱运动。广告有可能以这样的方式使人们有更好的自我感觉。
  市场营销和广告绝对应该以一种方式或另一种方式来打动人们,以便取得成功。研究表明,应用名人或迷人的人物可以促使消费者购买某一产品。无论用何种手法,广告商们希望,他们能够使人们实际上形成更好的自我感觉,因为这样有助于培养人们反复购买某一产品的习惯。最终来说,广告是否能使人们有更好的自我感觉取决于个人,取决于他们将自己与某一特定广告联系起来时是如何看待他们自己的。

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Issue  The following appeared in a letter to the editor of a local newspaper."Too much emphasis is placed on the development of reading skills in elementary school. Many students who are discouraged by the lonely activity of reading turn away from schoolwork merely because they are poor readers. But books recorded on audiocassette tape provide an important alternative for students at this crucial stage in their education, one the school board should not reject merely because of the expense involved. After all, many studies attest to the value of allowing students to hear books read aloud; there is even evidence that students whose parents read to them are even more likely to become able readers. Thus, hearing books on tape can only make students more eager to read and to learn. Therefore, the school board should encourage schools to buy books on tape and to use them in elementary education."
  In this argument, the writer claims that elementary schools place too much emphasis on the development of reading skills; therefore books on audiocassette should be provided as an alternative method of learning. The arguer attempts to substantiate the conclusion by citing studies that show the value of allowing students to hear books read aloud; including evidence that students whose parents read to them are even more likely to become better readers. This argument ultimately fails as it suffers from several critical fallacies.
  First of all, the writer flatly states, without any supporting evidence whatsoever, that many students are discouraged by the "lonely" activity of reading, then continues on in the same sentence to state that students turn away from schoolwork solely because they are poor readers. Students often read to themselves or to the other students in a classroom situation - hardly a lonely activity. Additionally, this argument puts the effect before the cause - inviting the circular logic that students stop trying to learn to read because they are poor readers. Following this argument to its logical conclusion, because they are poor readers, they should not try to learn how to improve their reading. This absurd argument is analogous to saying that a new student should never start to learn in the first place, because he or she knows nothing.
  Secondly, the writer cites as evidence in favor of the use of audiocassettes the idea that students whose parents read to them are even more likely to become proficient readers. It is at best doubtful that this provides proof that listening to someone read a book stimulates a young mind to learn to read better. It is far more likely that the child gains an interest in learning to read from the parents themselves, not the physical act of having something read to them. In this situation, the parent is showing the child his or her ability to read, which the child will naturally want to emulate. Furthermore, it is likely that a parent that spends time reading to a child is likely to be a much more encouraging parent, particularly when it comes to that child's education.
  Thirdly, the writer fails to convince in his argument that hearing books on audiocassette makes a child more eager to read and to learn. The author cites many studies that show value in allowing students to hear books read aloud - he or she does not state that the studies show whether that value manifests itself as better reading skills or simply better listening skills, which seems more likely than any improvement in reading ability.
  Finally, the author fails to take into consideration that merely listening to books on audiocassette fails to provide the visual stimulation necessary to develop higher level reading skills. It is more likely that hearing a book on audiocassette would discourage that student from ever reading that particular book on his or her own. Elementary schools are the main developing grounds for a student's reading abilities- there is no substitute for actively learning to actually see the writing and comprehend what it is trying to say. Listening skills can be developed through means other than by hearing books on audiocassette. Reading skills are an absolutely irreplaceable and fundamental part of an elementary student's education.
  In conclusion, the writer's argument fails to address several weak areas that lead to a rejection of the overall conclusion that the school board should encourage schools to buy books on tape for use in elementary education. To strengthen the argument, direct cause and effect evidence should be set forth that shows better overall learning without any loss in the development of higher level reading skills for students.
  (612 words)

  [题目]
  下述文字摘自一封致某地方报纸编辑的信函:"在小学里,人们对阅读技能的培养强调得过分了。许多对孤独的阅读活动望而却步的学生无心专注于学业,仅仅是因为他们阅读能力薄弱。但是,录制在盒式录音磁带上的书本内容却可以向学生在其教育中如此关键的这一阶段提供另外一个重要的选择方案。对于这一方案,校董事会不能纯粹因为所涉及到的费用而予以摈弃。不管怎么说,许多研究均可验证让学生聆听大声朗诵书本内容这一做法的价值。甚至还不乏这样的证据,即有些学生,由于其父母将书本内容朗读给他们听,就更有可能成为阅读能力很强的人。因此,在盒式录音磁带上听书本内容只会使学生更迫切地去阅读和学习。故校董事会应该鼓励学校去购置磁带书本,并将其应用于小学教学之中。"
  [范文正文]
  在本段论述中,作者宣称小学过分强调对学生阅读能力的培养;因此,录制在盒式录音磁带上的书本内容应提供给学生,作为又一种可选择的学习方法。论述者通过援引某些研究,力图来证明自己的结论,所援引的研究表明,让学生聆听书本内容被大声朗读这一做法不无价值。论述者还提供了这样的证据,即有些学生,由于其父母亲将书本内容朗读给他们听,就较有可能成为阅读能力很强的人。该论点由于存在着某些严重的逻辑谬误而最终无法站得住脚。 首先,作者言之凿凿地、且在毫无任何佐证性证据的情况下陈述道,许多学生对"孤独的"阅读行为望而却步,接着在同一个句子中继续陈述道,学生会仅仅因为阅读能力差而无心投入到学业之中。学生常常会在课堂氛围中自己默读或者朗读给其他学生听,这就很难将阅读说成是一种"孤独的"活动。此外,该论点将因果倒置——诉诸于循环论证式逻辑推理 ——学生们因为阅读技能差而不愿努力去学习阅读。按此论据得出的逻辑结论便是:因为他们阅读能力差,他们就不必作任何努力去学习如何来提高其阅读能力。这一荒谬的论述仿佛就像是在说,一个新生永远没有必要开始学习任何东西,因为这位新生一无所知。
  其次,作者援引了某一理念作为证据,用来为盒式录音磁带的使用进行辩护,这一理念便是,当一个学生有父母对他进行朗读时,他便更有可能成为一个精于阅读的人。如果将这视为证据,说明听他人朗读一本书便能刺激一颗年幼的心灵去学习如何具有更强的阅读能力,这充其量也是十分令人怀疑的。更有可能的是,孩子从父母身上所获得的是一种去学习阅读的兴趣,而非由他人对他们进行朗读这一具体行为本身。在此情形中,父母所做的是向孩子表明他或她的阅读能力,孩子自然愿意模仿这一能力。再者,一位花时间来给孩子进行朗读的父亲或母亲更有可能是一个教子有方的人,尤其是在涉及到孩子教育这一方面。
  第三,作者在其论述中没能让我们相信在盒式录音磁带上听书能使孩子更加渴望去阅读和学习。作者援引了多项研究,以期证明让学生听人大声朗读书本这一做法的价值。但这位作者并没能说清楚,这些研究所表明的价值是否呈现为更强的阅读技能,或者只是呈现为更强的听力技能,而这一技能似乎比任何阅读能力方面的提高来得更有可能。
  最后需要指出的是,作者没有考虑到这样一个因素,即纯粹在盒式录音带上听书是无法提供培养较高层次阅读技能所必需的视觉刺激的。情况更有可能是,在盒式录音带上听某一本书会打消该学生自己去阅读那本特定的书的积极性。小学教育是发展孩子阅读能力的主要阶段,没有任何东西可以来替代积极的学习行为,亲眼去看所写的内容并去理解字里行间所要表达的内容。要发展听力技能,并不必定需要借助在盒式录音带上听书这一手段。阅读技能是小学生教育中绝对无可替代的和最基本的部分。
  归纳而言,作者的论述没有能解决某些薄弱之处,正是这些没能纠正的薄弱之处,使学校董事会应该鼓励学校去购买磁带书本用于小学教育这一总体结论无法得以成立。若要使其论据更具充分说服力,必须摆出直接的因果证据来证明,学生在发展较高层次的阅读技能方面在没有蒙受任何损失的情况下,总体学习效果得到了提高。

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Issue  "When we concern ourselves with the study of history, we become storytellers. Because we can never know the past directly but must construct it by interpreting evidence, exploring history is more of a creative enterprise than it is an objective pursuit. All historians are storytellers."
  Sample Essay
  There would seem to be two different perspectives presented in the above statement. The first two sentences are concerned with exploring history and would seem to discuss looking at history that has already been written. People who concern themselves with the study of history are not storytellers, but rather story interpreters. The last sentence refers to the people that write about history, the historians themselves. Certainly, to a certain extent, historians must be storytellers because they have a story to tell. But the term "storyteller" seems to imply a greater amount of creativity than what is involved in actually explaining what has happened in history. For the purposes of this essay, I will focus on the perspective of the historian, as it would appear to be the underlying core idea.
  From the perspective of the historian, most historians do not have the benefit of having lived through the period of history that they are writing about. By researching through thousands of old letters, legal documents, family heirlooms and the like, historians must look at fragments of history and somehow put these pieces together to reconstruct what actually happened. In this sense, they must be storytellers because inevitably, their personal insights become part of what others will see when they read the historian's writings. As an example, there are many differing opinions as to whether Thomas Jefferson actually fathered children with one of his slaves. Some historians have written that it is a virtual certainty, while others argue that it was his brother, rather than Thomas himself, that fathered the children. They both cannot be right. Although they are all historians, they are also storytellers giving their opinion on what version of events actually transpired.
  Historians that are documenting events as they happen today have much less of an opportunity to fall into the "storyteller" category as they are present as witnesses to these events as they are happening. Television, newspaper and other media coverage is widespread and almost unrelenting. Television captures visuals and audios that are spread rapidly around the world and theoretically can last forever. There is much less room for putting one's own "spin" on an event, especially regarding the exact details of what happened. But even with today's events, there is room for opinion on the part of the historian. For example, historians are already arguing what evidence the United States government had regarding potential terrorism prior to the incredible tragedy of September 11, 2001. Looking back now, it seems obvious that the government should have known that something on a large scale was going to happen. With the benefit of hindsight, there were several failures in the government's counter-terrorism efforts. Historians will now argue over the exact version of what happened, as they become storytellers to try to explain 9/11 to future generations.
  Another example showcasing the idea that all historians are storytellers is that of the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. Variations on who was responsible and what actually happened have been the focus of hundreds, if not thousands, of books and historical accounts. Many historians argue vehemently that his or her account of history is the "true" version. Given the same evidence, historians decide which evidence is credible and which is not to arrive at their own conclusions. Clearly storytelling is a big part of how history is written.
  Particularly when it concerns ancient history, all historians must be storytellers to a certain degree. "Connecting the dots" of surviving evidence from the time period or event being examined requires a certain amount of personal intuition and supposition. Historians that write about events from the more recent periods will probably be less inclined to be "storytellers" as the sheer mass of evidence that is presented will likely lead to better documentation of historic events as they happen.
  (684 words)

  观点陈述型作文/[题目]
  "当我们关注历史研究时,我们便成为故事讲述者。由于我们永远也不可能直接知道过去。而只能通过对证据的解释来构建历史,因此,探究历史更多地成为一项创造性的事业,而不是一种客观的求索。所有历史学家都是故事讲述者。"
  [范文正文]
  上述陈述中似乎存在两个不同的视角。开头两个句子所涉及到的是探究历史,所探讨的似乎是审视业已被著述的那种历史。专注于历史研究的人不是故事讲述者,而是故事解释者。毫无疑问,在某种程度上,史学家必须是故事讲述者,因为他们有故事要讲。但"故事讲述者"这一术语似乎暗示着一种更大程度上的创造性,要超过实际解释历史上所发生过的一切这一过程中所涉及的程度。为了本文的目的,我将集中在史学家这一视角,因为这似乎是论题中所包含的核心主题。
  从史学家这一视角看,大多数史学家均无幸亲身经历他们所著述的那段历史。通过研究数以千计的古老书信,法律文件,家族的传世之宝等物件,史学家必须分析一个个残缺不全的历史片断,以某种方式将这些碎片拼凑起来,重新构建实际所发生的一切。从这层意义上讲,他们不得不成为故事讲述者,因为他们的个人见解不可避免地成为其他人研读史学家著作时所见到的一部分。例如,围绕着托马斯·杰佛逊实际上是否与他的一个女奴生有几个孩子、这一问题,史学们众说纷纭。有些史学家著述道,这几乎是一个铁定的事实。但其他一些史学家则反驳说,是他的兄弟,而不是杰佛逊本人,才是这些孩子的父亲。双方不可能都对。他们都是史学家,他们也是一些故事讲述者,给出他们自己的观点,以期说明究竟哪个版本才是实际发生的事件。
  记载当今正在发生的事件的史学家们,不太可能被归入"故事讲述者"这一范畴,因为他们作为历史见证者亲身经历了各种事件的发生。电视、报纸和其他媒体的报道铺天盖地,几乎从不间断。电视所捕捉到的视频和音频信息会被迅速地传遍全球,并在理论上可永久地存在。对某一事件作出个人"诠释"的余地越来越小,尤其是有关所发生事件的确切细节。但即使是对于当今发生的事件,史学家仍有表达个人观点的空间。例如,史学家早就在争论美国政府在无法令人置信的20##年9月11日悲剧发生之前关于潜在的恐怖主义活动已拥有了哪些证据。现在回顾起来,情况似乎十分明朗,即政府早就知道某种大规模事件将要发生。得益于后见之明,我们现在可以看清楚,政府的反恐努力中存在着诸多漏洞。史学家从现在起将会针对事件发生的确切版本争论不休,因为他们在试图向后代解释"9.11事件"时都将成为"故事讲述者".
  例证"所有史学家都是故事讲述者"这一观点的另一个实例是约翰·弗·肯尼迪的谋杀事件。谁对这起事件负责?实际上发生了什么?有关这类问题的各种说法构成了成千上万部史学著作的焦点。许多史学家都言之凿凿地宣称,他(她)对那段历史的叙述才是"确凿无疑"的版本。即使在被给予相同证据的情况下,史学家也会去判断哪些证据是可信的,哪些不足为信,并最终得出自己的结论。显而易见,讲述故事在历史著述中占有相当大的一部分。
  尤其是在涉及到古代历史时,所有史学家在一定程度上都是故事讲述者。从被审视的历史时期或事件残存的证据中将"蛛丝马迹"串连起来,这需要一定程度上的个人直觉和假设。对较为近期的历史事件进行著述的史学家可能不太愿意成为"故事讲述者",因为所能获得的大量证据可能导致对所发生的事件的过程更为详尽的记载。

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Topic  The Trash-Site Safety Council has recently conducted a statewide study of possible harmful effects of garbage sites on the health of people living near the sites. A total of five sites and 300 people were examined. The study revealed, on average, only a small statistical correlation between the proximity of homes to garbage sites and the incidence of unexplained rashes among people living in these homes. Furthermore, although it is true that people living near the largest trash sites had a slightly higher incidence of the rashes, there was otherwise no correlation between the size of the garbage sites and people's health. Therefore, the council is pleased to announce that the current system of garbage sites does not pose a significant health hazard. We see no need to restrict the size of such sites in our state or to place any restrictions on the number of homes built near the sites.
  Sample Essay
  In this argument, the council comes to the conclusion that the current system of garbage sites does not pose a significant health hazard and that therefore, there is no need to restrict the size of the garbage sites or the number of homes built near the site. To support this conclusion, the council cites a study of five garbage sites and three hundred people that showed only a small correlation between the closeness of the homes to the sites and the incidence of unexplained rashes among those people living there. Additionally, the council came to this conclusion despite the fact that people living near the largest such site had a slightly higher incidence of the rashes. This argument suffers from several critical weaknesses in logic and information presented.
  First of all, the members of the "Trash-Site Safety Council" are not listed, which could make a big difference in the believability of the study. A truly independent council could produce results that could be considered much more reliable than one with members with possible conflicts of interest. However, if the council were made up mainly of people who have an interest in finding that there is no problem with the trash sites - homebuilders or city councilmen, for example - then the study would lack some credibility. Without knowing the backgrounds and priorities of the council members, the argument is greatly weakened.
  Secondly, this was cited as a statewide study, but only five sites and three hundred people were studied. Although on average there was only a small statistical correlation shown between the nearness of the trash sites and the homes and people who lived in them, the margin of error could be quite large due to studying only a small sample of people that live near the trash sites in the state. It would be much more persuasive were a large majority of the homes and people near trash sites studied rather than merely a small percentage.
  Furthermore, the study cites only unexplained rashes as a health-related problem with some statistical correlation. The presence or absence of other types of health problems is not mentioned in the study. It could be that there were other, perhaps not immediately noticeable health problems such as cancer affecting the people living near the sites. Additionally, the study appears to cover only one moment in time, or at least the duration of the study is not discussed. Perhaps there are long-term effects that cannot be discovered by a study conducted over a short period of time. This weakens the argument by leaving out information that could help to persuade the reader one way or another.
  To add to the lack of credibility, the study does not discuss the relative size of the garbage sites or how close the homes and people were to the sites. There is really no data present to allow a proper decision to be made restricting the size of the sites or how close the homes could be located near the trash sites. At the very least, the fact that there is a slightly higher incidence of rashes in those living nearest the biggest trash sites indicates a need for further studies to prove or disprove the idea that trash sites of a certain size or location are health hazards.
  In summary, the findings and conclusions of the Trash-Site Safety Council are based mainly on speculation and a small amount of indicative data. The disclosure of the council members motives, the study of a larger sample of the population and trash sites, and further information on other types of health problems and relative nearness of the homes and people to the trash sites would give a much better argument either for or against restrictions on the such sites.
  (640 words)

  [题目]
  垃圾场安全委员会最近在全州范围内进行了一项调查,旨在研究垃圾场对居住在附近的居民的身体有可能产生的有害影响。被调查的有五座垃圾场以及300多位居民。研究表明,平均而言,居所紧挨着垃圾场这一事实与这些居所中所居住人口发生的无法解释的疹子之间,仅存在着一种微弱的数据关系。此外,虽然居住在最大的垃圾场附近的居民发疹的程度略高这一事实属实,但在其他方面,垃圾场的大小与人们的健康之间毫无关系。因此,委员会可以甚为欣慰地宣布,目前这套垃圾场体制并不会对健康构成一项重大危险。我们认为毫无必要去限制本州内这类垃圾场的规模,也没有必要去限制垃圾堆附近所建造的房屋数量。
  [范文正文]
  在本段论述中,委员会得出结论,认为目前的垃圾场体制并没有对健康构成一种重大危险,因此,毫无必要去限制垃圾场的规模或垃圾场周围的住房数量。为了支持这一结论,委员会援引了针对五所垃圾场和300位居民所作的一项研究,据此证明在住房紧挨着垃圾场与居住在那里的人中间所发生的难以名状的疹子之间仅存微弱的关联。此外,委员会在得出这一结论时,全然无视这样一个事实,即居住在这类最大的垃圾场附件的人发病的机率略高。论述在逻辑思路和呈示的信息方面不乏某些关键性的弱点。
  其一,"垃圾场安全委员会"的成员没有被清楚列举出来,这一点可令该研究的可信度产生巨大的差异。一个完全独立的委员会所提出的结论,会被视为比一个成员间可能存在着利害关系冲突的委员会所得出的结论可信度高。但是,如果组成该委员会的成员所感兴趣的仅仅是去揭示出垃圾场不存在问题——例如象房地产开发商或市政厅议员,那么,该项研究会失去某些可信度。如果对委员会成员的背景以及他们所优先考虑的问题一无所知,则本段论述倍遭削弱。
  其二,所作的研究据称是涵盖整个州的,但被调查的仅有五座垃圾场和300位居民。尽管平均而论,垃圾场的近距离与住所以及与居住在这些房屋内的人之间存在一丝微弱的联系,但由于所研究的仅是该州内居住在垃圾场附近的很小一批人口样本,故误差程度可能会相当的严重。如果在所有垃圾场附近的人和住所当中,有大部分的居民和住所得以被研究,而不只是一个很小的百分比的话,那么,所作的调查将更具说服力。
  此外,该研究仅援引难以名状的疹子作为与健康相关的、带有一定统计学关系的问题。该研究没有提及其他类别的健康问题存在与否。情况有可能是,还存在着其他类型的、或许不是那么昭然若揭的健康问题,例如癌症,正影响着居住在这些垃圾场附近的人们。再有,该研究所涵盖的似乎只是一小段时间,或者至少该研究的时间跨度不曾得到讨论。也许,有些长远影响决非是一份只在短期内进行的研究所能涵盖得了的。这一点再度削弱了本段论述,因为可以使读者信服的信息被疏忽了。 使可信度进一步受损的是,该研究没有讨论各垃圾场的相对规模,也没讨论住房和居民离垃圾场到底有多近。实际上,一点都没有数据来允许人们作出一种恰当的判断,是否应该去限制垃圾场的规模,也没讨论住房与垃圾场之间相隔多远才算安全距离。至少,在那些居住在最靠近最大的垃圾场的人身上疹子的发生率略高这一事实表明,有必要进行更深入的研究,以证明或驳倒某种规模或某种位置的垃圾场会对健康构成危害这一想法。 概括而论,垃圾场安全委员会的研究发现和研究结论所主要依据的是揣测和数量有限的说明数据。如能揭示出委员会成员的动机,研究为数更多的人口和垃圾场样本,就其他类别的健康问题以及住房和居民应与垃圾场之间保持怎样的相对距离提供更进一步的信息的话,那么,作者便能作出更为充分的论述,无论是赞成还是反对对垃圾场实施限制。

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Issue  "Some educational systems emphasize the development of student's capacity for reasoning and logical thinking, but students would benefit more from an education that also taught them to explore their own emotions."
  Sample Essay
  The ability of a student to think clearly using reasoning and logical thinking is of paramount importance in order to ensure his or her success as an individual after graduation from a university. To be able to look at a situation and use logic and reason to analyze the facts and develop an opinion or solution is to have a solid foundation for success in all aspects of life. Exploring one's emotions is important, but it is outside of the realm of what can be learned in a university classroom. Emotional self-exploration is best done outside of a classroom situation, although there may be some opportunity for students in the classroom to learn a methodology for doing so.
  The ability to survive and thrive in a society is based on the assumption that human beings act according to reason and logic. From a very early age, most people are taught that certain actions will bring about certain reactions, and that by using logic you can figure out what the response will be in most situations. Reasoning is also developed early on, although sometimes it is difficult to explain reasoning to a two-year old. Humans are probably born with a desire for reason and logic, as demonstrated by almost any child's incessant asking of the question "Why?". To understand the underlying reasons why something happens is a fundamental part of human nature, proven by the exploits of explorers, scientists and mathematicians over the course of human history.
  As a result, the basic framework of most forms of human society requires that a person must act according to the demands of reason and logic. Rules of law are based on the concept that individuals respond to rules based on reasoning and logic. The ability to think according to logic and reason is so imperative that it is essential that it be taught to university students at even the highest levels. What if law schools and medical schools decided that it was more important to allow students to explore their own emotions at the expense of learning the latest laws or medical techniques? Perhaps one course could be taught to help students to deal with the emotional demands of being a lawyer or a doctor, but to train students to explore their own emotions at the expense of learning about logical and reasonable thinking would be to invite catastrophe in society.
  One of the main problems with emphasizing to students the importance of exploring one's own emotions is that it creates a "me first" attitude towards their studies. Certainly a degree of self-introspection is necessary to deal with society, but to put emphasis on this above all else is to inculcate in the student the idea that he or she is more important than others, and that what he or she thinks matters a great deal more than it probably does in reality. Too much emotional self-exploration could create individuals who see their emotions as more important than what they contribute to society, which would damage that society as a whole.
  A certain amount of self-introspection into one's emotions is probably helpful to the development of a student as an overall person. Usually this kind of activity is explored fully in basic psychology classes that most students are required to take at university. Basic courses in sociology and psychology as well as other humanities courses give students plenty of opportunity to explore their own emotions. Rather than teaching students how to explore their own emotions, it would seem to be a better idea to teach students how to deal with these emotions. Only by instructing students in reasoning and logic can they learn how to apply whatever inner emotions they may have to becoming a successful member of a society.

观点陈述型作文/[题目]
  "有些教育强调发展学生的逻辑和思维能力,但一种也能教学生去探索其自我情感的教育,可使学生们获益更多。"
  [范文正文]
  一个学生运用逻辑推理和思维进行清晰的思索,这一能力对于这位学生大学以后的个人成功具有至高无上的重要性。能够审视某一特定情形,应用逻辑和理性,对事实展开分析,并形成观点或解决方法,这对于在生活中的任何方面获得成功,都能奠定一个坚实的基础。探索个人的情感无疑是重要的,但它外在于大学课堂的教学范围。个人情感探索最好是在课堂情景之外的地方来完成,虽然学生在课堂内可能有机会学到这样做的某种方法。
  在社会中得以生存和飞黄腾达,这一能力基于这样一个前提,即人类须按照理性和逻辑来行动。从孩提时代起,大多数人就被告知,自己的某些行为会造成他人的某些反应,通过应用逻辑分析,你就能推断在大多数情形中他人的反应会是什么样的。推理的能力在小时候也得以培养起来,尽管有时候向一个2岁的小孩解释推理甚为困难。人类对于理性和逻辑的欲望可能生而有之,举例来说,几乎任何一个孩子都会"为什么……?"地问个没完。要弄懂事情发生的基本原因是人性的一个基本部分,这一点可从人类历史进程中探险家、科学家和数学家们的功绩中得以证明。
  由此看来,大多数形式的人类社会的基本架构要求人们按照理性和逻辑的要求行事。法律的规则基于这样一个概念,即个人须遵循基于逻辑和理性思维的规则。必须按逻辑和理性来思索,这一能力是如此至关重要,以至于即使处在最高层次上的大学生,也必须被授以这一能力。试想一下,如果法学院或医学院认为,让学生去探索其情感,而放弃学习最新的法律和医疗技术,其结果将会怎样?或许,可以开设一门课来帮助学生处理当律师或大夫的情感要求。但是,以学习逻辑和推理思维为代价,训练学生去探索其情感,这意味着在社会中招致灾难。
  向学生强调探索其情感重要性,这一做法的诸多主要问题之一是,它会造成学生对其学习产生一种"唯 我独尊"的心态。当然,一定程度上的自我反省对于和社会打交道是必要的,但将它凌驾于其他一切之上将会在学生的内心灌输这样一种理念,即他(她)要比他人更为重要,他(她)的想法极为重要,而实际上或许并非如此。过多的自我情感探索所造就的将是这样一些个人,他们会将其情感视为比他们对社会的贡献更为重要,而这于整个社会都是有害的。
  一定程度上的对个人情感的自我反省或许有助于学生整体人格的发展。一般而言,这种活动大多数学生在大学期间必须选择的心理学基础课程中可得到充分探索。社会学和心理学的基础,以及其他人文学科的课程,赋予学生大量的机会去探索其个人情感。相对于去教授学生如何去探索其个人情感,教授学生如何去处理这些情感或许更为有益。只有通过教育学生提高其逻辑推理和分析能力,才能使学生学会去应用他们所拥有的任何内心情感,去成为社会的成功一员。\

(15):

As people grow older, an enzyme known as PEP increasingly breaks down the neuropeptide chemicals involved in learning and memory. But now, researchers have found compounds that prevent PEP from breaking neuropeptides apart. In tests, these compounds almost completely restored lost memory in rats. The use of these compounds should be extended to students who have poor memory and difficulty in concentrating-and therefore serious problems in school performance. Science finally has a solution for problems neither parents nor teachers could solve.  In this argument, the arguer states that researchers have found compounds that keep an enzyme known as PEP from breaking neuropeptides apart, which are known to be involved in learning and memory. The arguer states that tests have shown that these compounds almost completely restored lost memory in rats, and that therefore, these compounds should be administered to students with poor memory and difficulty in concentrating. This argument is unconvincing because it contains several critical flaws in logic.
  First of all, the arguer states that as people grow older, PEP breaks down the neuropeptide chemicals that are involved in learning and memory. It is true that generally, as people get older, they tend to have more problems with learning and memory. However, there is no direct link mentioned between the breaking down of the neuropeptide chemicals and the loss of learning ability or memory. Additionally, the arguer mentions neuropeptide chemicals that are broken down by PEP. What the researchers have found is a compound that prevents neuropeptides from breaking apart. These are two different physical actions: the breaking down of neuropeptide chemicals as opposed to the breaking apart of the neuropeptides themselves. Furthermore, it is not stated which of these physical actions is involved with the loss of learning ability and memory. It is not explicitly stated that the breaking down of chemicals causes a loss in learning ability and memory, only that this happens as people grow older. It is also not expressly stated whether the breaking apart of the neuropeptides themselves causes memory loss or a lessened learning ability. Without showing a direct link between the effect of keeping the neuropeptides from breaking apart and a reduction in the loss of memory and learning ability, the efficacy of the compounds is called into question.
  Secondly and most obviously, the compounds were only tested on rats. Rats may have a similar genetic structure to humans, but they are most certainly not the same as humans. There may be different causes for the learning and memory problems in rats as opposed to that of humans. The effect of the compounds on rats may also be very different from their effect on human beings. It is absurd in the extreme to advocate giving these compounds to students, even assuming that they would help the students with their studies, without conducting further studies assessing the compounds' overall effects on humans. The argument fails on this particular fact if for no other reason.
  Additionally, the arguer begins his or her argument by stating that "as people grow older", PEP breaks down the neuropeptide chemicals involved in learning and memory. At the end of the argument, the arguer advocates extending the compounds that prevent PEP from breaking neuropeptides apart to students who have poor memory and difficulty in concentrating. Students are generally young, not older people. There is no evidence presented that shows what actually causes students to have a poor memory or difficulty in concentrating. Indeed, it is more likely that it is extracurricular activities or a lack of sleep that causes such problems in students, not a problem associated with aging. It is highly unlikely that even if the stated compounds could help prevent the memory loss and decreased learning ability associated with aging that it would have any benefits for students.
  In summary, the arguer fails to convince with the argument as presented. To strengthen the argument, the arguer must show a direct link between the breaking apart of neuropeptides and loss of memory and learning ability. Additionally, he or she must show that students' poor memory and difficulty in concentrating is a result of the same process, and that the researcher's compounds would have as beneficial an effect on humans as it seems to have on rats.
  (633 words)

  [题目]
  随着人们日渐衰老,一种被称为PEP的酶会不断地分解学习与记忆过程中所涉及到的神经肽化学物。但现在,研究人员已发现了可阻止PEP致使神经肽分裂的化合物。在测试中,这些化合物几乎在老鼠身上能完全恢复缺失的记忆。这些化合物的运用应该也推广到记忆力衰弱或专注力有困难的学生身上,不然将会造成学业表现上的严重问题。科学终于解决了那些令家长和老师束手无策的问题。
  [范文正文]
  在本段论述中,论述者指出,研究人员已发现了某些化合物,可以阻止一种被称为PEP的酶的物质将神经肽予以分解,而神经肽则是学习和记忆过程中所需涉及到的物质。论述者还宣称,检测结果表明,这些化合物几乎完全恢复了老鼠身上缺失的记忆。因此这些化合物应该让那些记忆力差和难于集中注意力的学生服用。这段论述缺乏说服力,因为它包含着某些逻辑推理方面甚为严重的缺陷。
  首先,论述者称,随着人们渐趋衰老,PEP 会分解学习和记忆过程中所涉及的神经肽化学物。确实,随人们渐趋衰老,他们往往会在学习和记忆方面遭遇诸多问题。但是,在神经肽化学物的分解以及学习能力与记忆力丧失之间,却没有提到任何直接的联系。除此之外,论述者提及被PEP所分解的几种神经肽化学物。但研究人员所发现的只是一种可阻止神经肽不致于分裂的化合物。这是两种不同性质的物理作用:神经肽化学物的分解有别于神经肽自身的分裂。
  此外,原论述并未陈述这两种物理作用中的那一种与学习能力和记忆能力的丧失相涉。论述者没有明确陈述化学物的分解导致了学习能力和记忆能力的丧失,而只是陈述这种情形只是随着人们日趋年迈而发生。原论述中也没有确切地陈述神经肽自身的分裂是否会导致记忆缺失或学习能力下降。如果无法在阻止神经肽分裂所能产生的作用与减少记忆能力和学习能力丧失之间证明某种直接的联系,那么,化合物的效用将令人质疑。
  第二,也是极为明显地,化合物只是在老鼠身上进行了测试。虽然老鼠与人类具有类似的基因结构,但它们无论如何并不等同于人类。对于学习和记忆问题,老鼠所遇到的原因很可能全然不同于人类所遇到的原因。在没有作进一步的研究来估评化合物对人类所产生的总体效果的情况下,就去提倡将这些化合物供学生服用,甚至假设它们有助于学生提高其学习效果,这实乃荒唐至极。即使不是出于其他原因的话,就这一特定事实本身,该段论述根本就站不住脚。
  进一步而言,论述者在其论述的开始陈述道,"随着人们渐趋衰老",PEP会将学习和记忆过程中所涉及的神经肽化学物进行分解。在论述的结尾之处,论述者倡导将那些可阻止PEP致使神经肽分裂的化合物推广至那些记忆力和专注力差的学生身上。学生普遍而言都是年轻人,而不是老年人。论述者没有拿出任何证据来证明究竟是什么原因实际导至学生们记忆力和专注力下降。较有可能的是,是那些课外活动,或缺少充足的睡眠,导致了学生身上的这些问题。
  即使所提及的那些化合物真的有助于防止与衰老相关的记忆缺失问题和学习能力下降问题,它们也极不可能也能为学生带来任何的裨益。 总而言之,论述者没能用其提出的论据来说服我们。若要使其论述在逻辑上成立,论述者必须在神经肽的分裂与记忆能力和学习能力的缺失之间证明某种直接的联系。此外,论述者必须证明学生记忆能力差和注意力难以集中均是同一过程造成的,并且研究人员所发现的化合物对人类所产生的效果会对老鼠似乎所产生的效果同样的好。

(16);

Issue  "It is primarily through identification through social groups that we define ourselves."
  Sample Essay
  As primarily social animals, human beings naturally seek out different groups to which they feel they have a certain sense of belonging. But there are two different aspects of this issue involved: identifying oneself with a social group for its social implications and identifying oneself with a social group for internal needs. A person can have two different identities, one that involves an individual's self-perception and the way that others see that particular individual. There is a natural dichotomy between the two sides of one's personality that is usually displayed between the different types of social groups with which an individual may identify oneself.
  Self-definition can either be honest or dishonest. A person may join a social group because he or she thinks that the people that belong to this type of group are the same as he or she, whether it is true or not. The important detail to the individual is that he or she would like to be the same as the people that belong to this particular social group. As one example, consider a person who grew up poor and poorly educated, but became wealthy through the luck of the lottery or an inheritance from an unknown but wealthy relative. This individual then joins a wine-tasting club and buys season tickets to the local Philharmonic Orchestra and opera house. Although this individual knows nothing about wine, orchestras or opera, he or she is seeking to identify him or herself as a culturally literate person simply because the person is now wealthy. Through joining these social groups, the individual is seeking to define him or herself as socially elite, although the only difference now is that the person has great wealth and in reality probably does not fit in with the other members of the groups. In this case, one's self-definition by identifying with social groups does not match up with how society still identifies the individual.
  On the other hand, there are individuals that very clearly demonstrate who they are by their identification with certain social groups. At a very basic level, younger people may join gangs based on a sense of identification with certain gang members or gang ideas. By displaying different identifying tattoos or certain colors, these people clearly identify who they are and what they stand for by the particular to which they belong. Certain religious groups also give a clear identity to their members. Joining an Islamic fundamentalist group such as the Taliban or an Orthodox Jewish organization indicates a certain identity that is common to all of its members. Political organizations such as Greenpeace and the National Organization for Women also make a certain statement about the identity of an individual member. In all of these cases, an individual's self-perception and how others view that individual are probably very similar. These types of organizations speak to a person's very fundamental values and joining one is probably that person's way of saying to the world "this is who I am".
  Joining other types of groups may or may not indicate a person's self-identification. Being a Republican or a Democrat, for example, may just be a matter of whichever party your parents belong to. Spending time with a particular group of friends may only mean that you like only one of the people in the group or you have nothing better to do, it may have nothing to do with your self-identification. People that belong to these groups do not necessarily belong to any one social group for identification purposes; it may be only a matter of convenience.
  It depends on the individual and the particular social group under discussion as to whether we primarily identify ourselves through association with social groups. Once the individual or the social group has been identified, a determination must still be made as to whether the individual has joined for self-identification purposes or to impress upon others a certain image of that individual.
  (656 words)

  [题目]
  "我们主要通过与社会群体的认同而来界定我们自身。"
  [范文正文]
  作为具有显著社会性的动物,人类自然会去寻觅某些他们觉得与其存在某种归属感的不同群体。但这个问题涉及两个方面:基于某一社会群体的社会含义而认同该群体,以及出于某些内在需要而认同某一社会群体。一个人可以拥有两个不同的身份,一种身份涉及到个人的自我感受,另一个所涉及的是他人对这个特定个人的看法。在一个人性格的这两方面之间,存在着一种自然的两分法。个人的性格一般就体现在这一个人所可能认同的不同社会群体之间。
  自我界定可以是诚实的,亦可以是不诚实的。一个人之所以加入某一社会群体,可能是因为他(她)认为属于这一群体的那些人与他(她)相同,无论这是真还是假。对于这个个人具有重要性的一个细节是,他(她)希望与属于这一特定社会群体的人们相同。例如,我们不妨考虑一下这样一个人,他出身贫穷,没能受过良好的教育,但通过彩票的运气或由于继承了一位无名但却有钱的亲戚的遗产而一夜暴富。此人然后加入一个品酒俱乐部,并购买当地爱乐乐团和歌剧院的季票。虽然此君对酒、乐队或歌剧一窍不通,但他(她)却竭力将自己表现为有文化修养的人,仅仅因为他(她)现在很有钱。通过介入这些社会群体,此人力图将自己界定为社会精英,虽然现在唯一的区分是,这人极其有钱,而实际上他(她)与这些群体内的其他成员格格不入。在此情形中,通过认同某些社会群体而来进行自我界定,这与社会如何看待这个人仍然相去甚远。
  另一方面,有些人则通过他们与某些社会群体的认同而明白无误地来表明他们是何种人。在某个甚为基本的层面上,青少年会基于他们与某些帮派成员或帮派理念的认同感而参加某些帮派。通过展示与众不同的认别性纹身图案或某些颜色,这些人明确表明他们是谁,以及他们代表着什么。某些宗教团体也会赋予其成员以某个明白无误的身份。加入诸如塔利班一类的伊斯兰原教旨主义团体或者正统派犹太教组织标志着其成员普遍共有的某种身份。像"绿色和平"以及"全国妇女组织"等政治团体也在就某个个体成员的身份作出某种陈述。在所有这些情形中,个体的自我感受,以及他人对其所形成的看法,二者可能甚为近似。这些类型的组织诉诸于一个人极为基本的价值观,而加入这样的一种组织可能就成为这个人向世界表明"我就是这样一个人"的一种方式。
  加入其他类别的组织可能表明,但也不一定表明一个人的自我认同。例如,成为共和党还是民主党成员,这可能只与你父母属于哪个政党有关。与特定一群朋友在一起,这可能只意味着你只喜欢该群体中的一个人,或者因为你除此之外无所事事。这与你的自我认同毫无关系。属于这些群体的人并非必定出于认同的目的而属于任一社会群体。这可能只是一种权宜之计而已。
  至于我们是否主要通过与社会群体的联系而来表明我们的身份,这取决于个人以及所涉及的特定社会群体。即使个人或社会群体得以被判明,我们还有待于去确定,一个人加入某一社会群体,究竟是出于自我认同的内在目的呢,还是为了将其个人形象烙在他人心头。

(17):

In a study of reading habits of Leeville citizens conducted by the University of Leeville, most respondents said they preferred literary classics as reading material. However, a follow-up study conducted by the same researchers found that the type of book most frequently checked out of each of the public libraries in Leeville was the mystery novel. Therefore, it can be concluded that the respondents in the first study had misrepresented their reading habits.
  This argument is based on two separate surveys of the citizens of Leeville, conducted by the University of Leeville. In the first survey, most respondents said that their preferred reading material was literary classics. A follow-up study by the same researchers found that mystery novels were the most frequently checked out books from each of the public libraries in Leeville. The arguer concludes that the respondents in the first study therefore misrepresented their own reading habits. This argument does not follow the facts and is therefore unconvincing due to several flaws in logic.
  First of all, it is possible that none of the citizens who responded to the first survey were participants in the second survey. Statistically speaking, it is entirely possible that the first survey contained a greater majority of literary classics readers than are present in the general population of Leeville. The difference in the first study and the study of the books that were actually checked out from the library may purely be that the respondents had different interests in literature, therefore disallowing the arguer"s conclusion that the first group misrepresented its preferred reading material.
  Secondly, it is possible that the difference in the survey results could be attributed to the lack of availability of literary classics in the Leeville public libraries. Simply put, the library may have thousands of mystery novels available for checkout but very few literary classics in their collections. Leeville citizens may actually prefer to read literary classics - the public libraries simply may not have them for the citizens to check out and read. Another possibility is that the Leeville public libraries restrict the checkout of literary classics - perhaps treating the books as a type of "reference" material that must be read inside the library and cannot be checked out. Furthermore, it is possible that no matter how many literary classics the Leeville public libraries have, the citizens have read them all in the past, perhaps many times over, and they are therefore not checked out. These possibilities further weaken the argument that the first respondents misrepresented their reading habits.
  Thirdly, literary classics are the type of book that people tend to buy for personal collections rather than checking them out of a library. It is a distinct possibility that the citizens of Leeville purchase literary classics to read and then keep in home libraries rather than checking them out of the library. Leeville citizens may prefer to read literary classics and therefore buy them for their own personal collections, thus checking other types of reading materials out of the library rather than buying them to own forever. The arguer"s conclusion that the first set of respondents misrepresented their reading habits is critically weakened by this possibility.
  Finally, this argument does not account for the possibility that the survey samples themselves were flawed. There is no indication given about how many people were surveyed, the demographics involved, or the specific locations involved. For example, richer people would tend not to visit public libraries but they are possibly more predisposed to reading literary classics. Similarly, people who visit public libraries may be more predisposed to reading mystery novels than literary classics. Without knowing the relationship between those first surveyed and those who visit the public libraries, it isnot possible to draw a proper conclusion about the accuracy of the first group"s statements.
  In summary, the arguer fails to convince by jumping to a conclusion that fails to hold up to analysis. To strengthen the argument, the arguer needs to find further research that eliminates these other possibilities that preclude the judgment that the first group of respondents misrepresented their reading habits.
  (614 words)

  [题目]
  "在一项由Leeville大学就Leeville市民阅读习惯所作的研究中,大多数受访对象称,他们偏爱将文学名著作为其阅读材料。但是,由相同的研究人员所作的一项跟踪调查却发现,每个公共图书馆外借得最频繁的图书均为志怪小说类。因此,我们可以得出这样的结论,即第一项研究中的受访对象没能如实地描述出他们的阅读习惯。"
  [范文正文]
  上述论断基于由Leeville大学对Leeville市民所从事的两项互为独立的调查。在前一项调查中,大多数受访对象称他们较为偏爱的阅读材料是文学名著。由相同的研究人员所作的一项跟踪调查则发现,志怪小说是Leeville市每个公共图书馆外借频率最高的一类图书。论述者便据此得出结论认为,这样看来,第一项研究中的受访对象没能如实地描述他们自己的阅读习惯。这段论述没能遵循事实,因而由于逻辑方面某些缺陷而无从令人置信。
  首先,有可能是,对第一项调查作出问卷回答的公民,没有一个人参加了第二项调查。从统计角度而言,完全有可能的情形是,第一项调查涵盖了一个比Leeville总人口中所存在的来得更大的文学名著多数读者群。第一项研究与其后对图书馆实际外借的书所作的那项研究,二者间的差异可能纯粹是因为受访对象对文学拥有全然不同的兴趣,因此否定了论述者所谓第一组受访对象没有如实表述其所喜爱的阅读材料的结论。
  其次,两项调查结果之间的差异或许可以归诸于这样一个原因,即Leeville市的公共图书馆内缺乏文学名著。说得简单一点,图书馆可能有数千册志怪小说供外借但却没能收藏多少册文学名著。Leeville市民实际上可能甚是偏爱阅读文学名著,但公共图书馆就是没有此类图书外借供市民阅读。另一个可能性是,Leeville公共图书馆限制文学名著的外借——可能只将这类图书当作"参考"资料,只允许在馆内阅读,不得外借。进一步而言,也有可能是,无论Leeville公共图书馆藏有多少册文学名著,市民们在过去已将它们悉数读完,甚至读过许多遍,因此,这些书便不再有人借阅。这些可能性也进一步削弱了第一组受访对象没有如实表述其阅读习惯的论点。
  第三,对于文学名著这类书,人们往往购买来作为个人藏书,而不太倾向于从图书馆借阅。一个显著的可能性是,Leeville市民购买文学名著来阅读并随后将它们收藏于家庭图书馆而不再去公共图书馆借阅。Leeville市民可能喜爱阅读文学名著并因此购置它们作为个人藏书,因此只从图书馆借阅其他类型的阅读材料,而不是去购买这些材料来永久地拥有。论述者关于第一组受访对象没有如实表述其阅读习惯的结论,由于这一可能性而遭到致命的削弱。
  最后,这段论述没有解释这样一种可能性,即调查样本本身带有缺陷。论述者没有摆出任何资料表明到底有多少市民接受了调查,或所涉及的人口统计学方法是什么,或所涉及的具体地点。例如,较富有的人往往不太会光顾公共图书馆,但他们可能更喜爱阅读文学名著。同样地,光顾公共图书馆的人可能更喜爱阅读志怪小说而不爱读文学名著。如果不知道第一组受访群体与光顾公共图书馆的群体之间的关系,就不可能就第一组群体的人的陈述的精确性得出一个恰当的结论。
  总而言之,论述者没有能说服我们,因为他(她)过于匆促地得出的结论无法经得住推敲。若要使其论点更具分量,论述者需要寻找出进一步的研究,排除掉其他那些会否定掉第一组受访对象没能如实地表述其阅读习惯这一判断的可能性。

(18):

Issue  "Humanity has made little real progress over the past century or so. Technological innovations have taken place, but the overall condition of humanity is no better. War, violence and poverty are still with us. Technology cannot change the condition of humanity."
  Sample Essay
  The discussion of this statement turns on what is meant by "little real progress" from the first sentence, "the overall condition of humanity" in the second sentence, and "the condition of humanity" from the third sentence. To be sure, war, violence and poverty are still with us and we as mankind are probably more aware of these problems worldwide than ever before thanks to advances in technology and communication. But depending upon the definition of progress and the condition of humanity, this would appear to be an incorrect statement.
  First of all, the phrase "little real progress" from the first sentence must be defined. If the author defines progress as elimination of death, war, violence and poverty, then perhaps it could be stated that humankind has not made much improvement over the past one hundred years. People are still dying, wars are still being fought, violence is present almost everywhere and there are most likely people in every country in the world living in poverty. However, if the term "progress" is defined not as elimination of these problems but rather a reduction in them, then great progress has been made over the past century. Life expectancies are up in nearly every country of the world due to improvements in medicine and the scientific study of the human body. War and violence, although still present, has been reduced and to a large part confined to certain areas of the world rather than the global wars of the past such was World Wars I and II. Poverty has also been reduced as international trade has lead to economic improvements in many formerly impoverished nations. Very real progress has been made in these areas over the past one hundred years.
  Secondly, the phrases "the overall condition of humanity" and "the condition of humanity" must be defined. If the terms mean that we are all still born into pain, suffer many tragedies during our lives, and still die in the end, then of course the overall condition of humanity is no better than it was one hundred or even one hundred thousand years ago. Life is still life, and no matter what technological innovations come along, it is unlikely that the basic facts of living as a member of the human race will ever change. However, if the term means how we are able to live our lives during the time that we are given, then again tremendous progress has been made during the past century. Cures have been found for many diseases, some of which have officially been completely eliminated. Medical treatments for other diseases have made them less deadly or less debilitating. For example, many cancer victims that would have died in the past can now go on living comfortably and cancer-free after treatment. Diabetics who would have died in the past can now live nearly normal lives. Even poor eyesight can be effectively eliminated through laser surgery. It would seem to be beyond argument that overall, the condition of humanity is much better now than it was one century ago.
  If one takes a very narrow definition of "progress" and "the condition of humanity", it could be fairly stated that mankind has made little in the way of advancement over the past century. Millions of people worldwide still live in poverty. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is killing millions of people with no cure in sight. War and violence continues in the Middle East, Africa and Afghanistan. But to take this narrow point of view would be to ignore the obvious tremendous advances that have been made over the past one hundred years by the human race. As mankind continues on into the twenty-first century, it would be preferable to consider all that has been accomplished over the past one hundred years and to look ahead to future advances over the next century instead of ignoring mankind's obviously improved circumstances today.
  (696 words)

  观点陈述型作文/[题目]
  "在过去约一个世纪的时间中,人类几乎没有实现真正的进步。技术创新确实发生了,但人类的总体状况毫无改观。战争、暴力,以及贫穷仍然伴随着我们。技术无法改善人类的生存状况。"
  [范文正文]
  上述陈述中的探讨所围绕的是这样三个概念的含义,即第一句中的"little real progress",第二句中的"the overall condition of humanity",以及第三句中的"the condition of humanity".毫无疑问,战争、暴力以及贫穷仍然伴随着我们,并且,作为人类,由于技术与通信的进步,我们可能比以往任何时候都更深切地意识到了这些问题。但除非将"progress"和"the condition of humanity"这样的概念进行清晰界定,否则,上述陈述将是相当谬误的。
  首先,第一句中的"little real progress"必须予以界定。如果作者将"progress"定义为祓除死亡、战争、暴力以及贫穷,那么或许可以这样说,人类在过去的100多年中并未取得太大的进展。人们仍在不断死亡,战争仍在进行,暴力几乎到处存在,世界每个国家都有人生活于贫困之中。但是,如果"progress"这一术语并非被定义为对上述问题的消除,而是对这些问题的削减,那么,过去一个世纪中人类确实取得了重大进步。由于医学和对人体科学研究水平的提高,全世界几乎每个国家中人类寿命都呈上升趋势。战争与暴力,虽然仍然存在,却已被减少,且在很大程度上都被限制在世界的某些地区,而再也不是像第一、第二次世界大战那样波及全球。随着国际贸易在许多以前的贫穷国家导致了经济改善,贫困也得以减轻。在过去的100年中,这些领域中已取得了极为真实的进步。其次,"the overall condition of humanity"以及"the condition of humanity"必须予以界定。如果这些术语指的是我们所有人仍然降生于痛苦之中,一生中蒙受着许多悲剧,并最终仍然死去,那么,毫无疑问,人类的总体状况丝毫不比100年或甚至10万年之前来得更好。生活依然是生活,无论产生怎样的技术创新,作为人类的一员,生活的某些基本事实依旧不变。如果该术语指的是我们是如何在被赋予的生存时间中得以生活的,那么我们可以再一次说,人类在过去的世纪中取得了巨大的进步。对许多疾病,人类已找到了治愈方法,某些疾病已正式被彻底消除。对某些疾病的医治已使这些病症变得不再那么致命,不再那么毁灭性。例如,在过去有可能死去的许多癌症患者,现在经治疗之后可继续舒服地生活下去,摆脱癌症的折磨。在过去可能会死去的糖尿病患者,现在也能过上几乎正常的生活。即使视力障碍也能通过激光手术被有效去除。总体而言,人类状况现在远好于一个多世纪之前,这似乎应是不争的事实。 如果从狭义上去理解"progress"和"the condition of humanity",则人们可以甚为合理地说,人类在过去的一个多世纪中几乎没有取得任何进步。全球数以百万计的人仍生活在贫困之中,爱滋病正在夺走无数人的生命,而治愈方法遥遥无期。战争与暴力在中东,非洲以及阿富汗持续不断。然则,持此狭隘的观点则有可能使人无视人类在过去一百年中业已取得的昭然若揭的巨大进步。随着人类继续迈进21世纪,较为可取的做法应该是,我们应充分意识到在过去100年中人类业已取得的全部成就,并展望人类在下一个世纪中所可能取得的未来进步,而不是对人类今日显著改善的生存状况视而不见,置若罔闻。

(19):

A recent study shows that people living on the continent of North America suffer 9 times more chronic fatigue and 31 times more chronic depression than do people living on the continent of Asia. Interestingly, Asians, on average, eat 20 grams of soy per day, whereas North Americans eat virtually none. It turns out that soy contains phytochemicals called isoflavones, which have been found to possess disease-preventing properties. Thus, North Americans should consider eating soy on a regular basis as a way of preventing fatigue and depression.  In this argument, the arguer cites a study showing that North Americans suffer from an amazingly higher rate of chronic fatigue and chronic depression than people living in Asia. From an unknown source, the arguer states that Asians eat much more soy than North Americans, who eat almost none, and that soy contains disease-preventing properties. The arguer then concludes his or her argument by stating that North Americans should consider regularly eating soy as a means of battling fatigue and depression. This argument suffers from at least four critical fallacies.
  For the sake of this argument, we will assume that the studies and the statistics about North Americans' and Asians' soy eating habits are correct, and that isoflavones have been found to have disease-fighting properties. Given that, there is still a problem with the arguer directly correlating the eating of soy with the prevention of disease and depression. First of all, simply because soy may have disease-preventing properties, that does not mean that it can therefore fight chronic fatigue and chronic depression. Fatigue and depression may not actually even be considered as "diseases", therefore even given the fact that soy has disease-fighting properties, it would have no effect on the "nondiseases" of fatigue and depression. Secondly, even assuming that fatigue and depression are diseases, they are not specifically mentioned as diseases that soy or isoflavones are able to prevent. Perhaps soy can help prevent osteoporosis (bone loss), mumps or even chicken pox, but that does not mean that it can specifically address the problems of chronic fatigue and chronic depression. These two critical weaknesses alone make the argument unconvincing.
  Furthermore, the arguer's conclusion is based on the idea that diet alone can prevent fatigue and depression by comparing the diets of North Americans and Asians. It is highly unlikely that diet alone is responsible for the tremendous difference in the rates of fatigue and depression between the two populations. Other factors such as lifestyles, occupations, residence in city or rural areas and levels of stress may play a much bigger factor than diet. Additionally, the arguer states that soy contains phytochemicals called isoflavones, which supposedly have disease-preventing properties. What is not stated, however, is whether these isoflavones are contained in a form in soy that is usable by the human body. It is possible that the particular configuration of the phytochemicals found in soy products is not usable by the human body, thereby producing no beneficial effects by people eating more soy products. In and of themselves, isoflavones may prevent certain diseases, but perhaps those found in soy are of no benefit to humans. By failing to address these possibilities, the arguer has presented an unconvincing argument.
  In summary, the argument fails due to four major flaws in logic. First, "disease-preventing" properties does not mean "fatigue and depression" preventing properties. Secondly, fatigue and depression may not even be considered as diseases. Thirdly, the arguer ignores the probability that diet alone is not the sole reason behind the increased rates of fatigue and depression for North Americans as opposed to Asians. Finally, isoflavones as found in soy may not produce the same beneficial effects as when it is found in other forms. To strengthen the argument and conclusion, the arguer should present evidence that directly links diet to fatigue and depression as well as evidence that shows that soy can specifically prevent chronic fatigue and chronic depression in North Americans.
  (576 words)

  [题目]
  一项最近的研究表明,居住在北美大陆上的人们要比居住在亚洲大陆上的人们患慢性疲倦和慢性忧郁症的比例分别超出9倍和31倍。有意思的是,亚洲人平均每天只吃20克的大豆,而北美洲人却几乎一点都不吃。研究表明,大豆含有被称为异黄酮的植物化学物,这些植物化学物经科学家研究,发现拥有防病特性。因此,北美洲人应该考虑经常性地吃大豆,以此作为一种防止疲劳和压抑的方法。
  [范文正文]
  在本段论述中,论述者援引了一项研究来证明,北美洲人患慢性疲倦和慢性忧郁症的比例要比居住在亚洲的人令人惊讶地高。从一项来源不明的资料中,作者陈述道,亚洲人所吃的大豆要远多于北美人,而北美人则几乎一点都不吃,而大豆却含有防病的特性。论述者在其论述的结束处陈述首,北美人应考虑经常性地吃些大豆,以此作为一种抗疲劳和抗忧郁的方法。本段论述至少犯下了四个关键性的逻辑谬误。
  为了论述的缘故,我们假定关于北美人和亚洲人吃大豆的习惯这方面的研究和数据是完全正确的,并且异黄酮确实被科学家发现具有防病功效。即使在承认这些条件的情况下,论述者将食用大豆与防止疾病和抵抗忧郁直接联系起来,这一做法本身仍存在着问题。首先,即使大豆有可能具备防病特性,但这并非意味着它因此就能抵抗慢性疲倦和慢性忧郁症。疲倦和忧郁实际上甚至还不可能被视作"疾病",因此,尽管大豆具有防病作用属实,但它对于疲倦和忧郁这些"非疾病"可能毫无作用。其次,即使我们假定疲倦和忧郁可被视为疾病,但它们没有被具体提到是属于大豆或异黄酮所能预防的那类病症。或许,大豆可以预防骨质疏松症,流行性腮腺炎或甚至是水痘,但这并非意味着它能具体地治疗慢性疲倦和慢性忧郁症这样一些问题。这二个关键性的弱点本身就足以使得该论述缺乏可信度。
  进而言之,论述者的结论所依据的是这样一个理念,即通过比较北美人和亚洲人的饮食,饮食本身可以来防止疲倦和忧郁。但很难想象饮食本身造成了两类人口之间患上疲倦和忧郁症比例方面的巨大差异。其他诸多因素,如生活方式,职业,居住在都市还是乡村,以及压力程度所产生的影响可能要比饮食大得多。此外,论述者陈述道,大豆含有一种可被称为异黄酮的植物化学物,据称具有防病功效。但论述者没有作出陈述,即这些异黄酮是否是以一种被人体使用的方式被包含在大豆中。有可能是,大豆产品中所发现的植物化学物,其特定的结构并不能为人体所利用,从而对食用较多大豆产品的人并不能产生任何益处。就其本身而言,异黄酮或许可能预防某些疾病,但大豆中所发现的异黄酮对人类毫无益处,这也是有可能的。由于没有探究这些可能性,论述者所摆出的这段论述便失去了说服力。
  总的说来,本段论述因为四大逻辑缺陷而难以站得住脚。首先,"防病"特性并不能等同于"疲倦和忧郁症"预防特性。其次,疲倦和忧郁甚至还不能被视为疾病。第三,论述者忽视了这样一种可能性,即饮食本身并不是造成北美人相对于亚洲人疲倦与忧郁症比例上升的唯一原因。最后,大豆中所被发现的异黄酮可能并不能产生与在其他形式中所发现的异黄酮相同的益处。若要增强其论点和结论的力度,论述者应该拿出证据,将饮食与疲倦及忧郁直接联系起来,且提供证据来证明大豆能具体地防止北美人的慢性疲倦和慢性忧郁症。

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