话语与权力

话语与权力 *

话语与权力

戏剧《人民公敌》的情节概括起来说的就是:科学家兼医生斯多克芒发现本城镇的浴场矿泉里含有多种非常危险的传染病菌,因而他坚持全部工程必须进行改造;而他的哥哥彼得作为市长兼浴场委员会主席则坚决反对这一改造计划,其理由是改造浴场需要二三十万克罗纳,且要停止经营两年,这既损害了资本筹集者的利益,也不符合城镇市民的利益。我们完全可以把这看作两个不同的阶级围绕各自不同利益而展开的一场冲突与斗争。也可以在这基础上,把斯多克芒医生最后的失败原因,一方面归咎于他个人缺乏斗争经验和群众觉悟的有待提高两个因素,另一方面可以把失败的原因归咎于官僚势力和资产阶级势力的勾结及其狡猾的本性。

但有趣的是,这场关涉不同阶级利益的冲突与斗争,完全没有以暴力或革命的形式出现,也避开了经济利益分配的焦点问题;而是转移到一系列诸如民主、真理、责任、义务、自由和正义等问题的论战。一场斗争冲突更像是一场话语的争夺与阐释,更像是一次从不同角度展开的修辞活动。最终斯多克芒以失败告终,被审判为“人民的公敌”。这样我们要问的是,“人民公敌”这一显然不合情理的宣判为什么能以合乎情理的方式展开?的确,易卜生笔下的彼得市长确实与被脸谱化的反面人物大有不同之处:他对斯多克芒医生可谓晓之以情,动之以理。一方面他并没有完全拒绝弟弟的发现,而是认为对存在的问题“可以用适应委员会的财力的办法来补救”,为了照顾地方利益,可以想出私下解决的办法;另一方面他教导其弟弟要懂得人情世故,并警告他如果执意坚持改造计划,他就会遭到解聘,最终一无所有。相反斯多克芒的缺点暴露无遗,显得极为“固

执”、“冲动”和“鲁莽”,他直接冲撞市长,甚至夺过他的官帽和手杖,多少显得有点“不合时宜”。但这显然还不是不合情理的宣判之所以能够以合情合理的形式演绎、发生的关键所在。那么,究竟谁是“人民公敌”?谁赋予这一宣判的权利?看来文本中所展开的这场冲突和斗争比我们想像的要来得复杂,其方式更为隐蔽。米歇尔?福柯的话语权力理论将为我们揭示外在的对立与斗争背后,一场隐蔽的话语争夺和“微观权力”较量在这里是如何进行的,我们也能从中找出那个不合乎事理的宣判之所以能以合理的形式进行的支撑点。

话语原来是属于语言学范畴,用来指构成一个具有相对完整的单位。而在福柯的谱系学理论中,话语显然是一个赋有文化、社会和历史内涵的概念。“能指”(signifier)和“所指”(signified)这对源于语言学家索绪尔的概念,在福柯的话语理论中显得极为重要。能指就是一个音响形象或它的书写对应物;所指则是指实物和意义。而这二者的关系是一种任意的关系。比如,“猫”在英文中被书写为“cat”完全是任意的。那么我们在现实生活中之所以能够捕获话语的意义,完全受益于能指与所指在特定的历史和文化语境下的约定俗成。但是,能指和所指的约定关系在权力的作用下会出现断裂、错位或位移;能指在脱离俗定的所指后,有可能具有至高的权威性、压迫性和统治性。权力在福柯那里是一种微观权力,它不是一种外在的暴力干预或否定力量。因而他认为权力无处不在,同时它与话语有一种共谋的特性。在福柯看来话语是权力运作方式的最好藏身之处,话语的巨大作用就是转移权力和危险;而权力和欲望借助话语实现自身时,又在实现过程中掩盖了自身的实际存在。

以下我们来看看《人民公敌》中,漂移的能指是如何发挥其威能作用,话语又是如何转移了权力并与权力共谋的。

文本中有关“真理、自由、民主、责任”等能指以及由其构成的话语,是斗争双方都不断重复的,也是交锋的重点。这样,一个关于是否要改造浴场的问题就悄悄地转移到一个是否要坚持真理或者是否要自由、民主等等这样的问题。而“自由、民主、人民、公敌”等“能指”大多产生于西方启蒙运动或在启蒙运动过程中被重新赋予了新的意义,因此在人类近现代的文明视域中它们应该有其相对的客观标准。但是,这些能指以及由它们构成的话语的使用是受制于使用它们的主体的。福柯曾告诫我们,那些标榜着真理的话语形态需要分析警惕的。这样我们就不难看出,代表官僚势力、资产阶级利益的彼得市长、阿斯拉克森等与科学家兼医生斯多克芒在使用这些能指和话语时是完全不同的,他们各有“所指”:前者通过人为地操纵与隐蔽的权力运转,使得这些能指和话语

的内涵趋向他们的利益和价值取向;后者在使用“真理”、“自由”等能指和话语时,其出发点虽试图使之贴近当时历史语境下的约定意义,从而使之符合市民大众的利益,但是由于自身知识分子的“精英主义”立场,赋予这些话语诸多不切合实际的乌托邦色彩,因此他并没有得到大众的理解和支持。

福柯曾精妙地指出,话语控制的方式之一就是通过言语禁忌来完成的。也就是说,话语使用者可以以理性的名义将一些话语打成非理性话语和疯癫话语加以拒斥,或者以真理的名义将一些话语判为谬误。文本中彼得代表的官僚和资产阶级就是以“民主”、“自由”、“真理”的代言人自居,从而认定斯多克芒医生是“疯子”和“不受理性支配的”人,最终宣判斯多克芒为“人民公敌”。权力的运转和能指的威能、话语的暴力就是这样结合得天衣无缝。

通过以上分析,究竟谁是人民的公敌就昭然于众了。

(陈开晟)

*《人民公敌》,作者:〔挪威〕易卜生(1828—1906)。

 

第二篇:从词汇的角度分析公开讲话话语中的权力

从词汇的角度分析公开讲话话语中的权力

摘 要:discourse is an interaction between soeial beings,which reveals their unequal relationship,i.e. power relationship. and discourse is intertwined with power. this thesis looks at the diseourse of a public speech from the vocabulary perspective. power is found to be exercised by many linguistic devices. it is sneaky and pervasive, and awareness of it needs to be enhanced for the eventual liberation of the oppressed.

关键词: vocabulary;discourse;public speech;power

1.introduction

the approaches to discourse analysis can be broadly divided into two kinds: the more traditional structural one which focuses on the intradiscursive language patterns, and the more recent functional one which looks at language in use and aims at the exposition of its connection with social relations.

this paper tries to find out how power is exercised in discourse by the application of cda. the purpose is to increase awareness of how language contributes to the domination of some people by others in expectation of the emancipation of the oppressed. (fairelough,1989)

2. discourse and power

2.1 historical review

critical discourse analysis,or critical linguistics,or critical 1inguistic study,aims at the revelation of the influence of ideology on discourse,the counter一effects of discourse on ideology,the intertwined relationship between these two and social hierarchy and power relation,through the analysis of linguistic forms from the perspectives of 1inguisties,sociology and psychology.

2.2 discourse as social practice

since we are going to look at discourse in a functional perspective,discourse is understood as,in chomskys terminology,“performance” of language,which is the concrete individual linguistic event and similar to saussures term“parole”. (bussmann,2000) put more simply,discourse is language in use,which forms communication.

2.3 discourse and power

power is a fami1iar word which has many meanings. the intangible power needs to be defined before we work with it. the traditional concept of power connects it with force (the mi1itary,the police),economy (corporations) or political position. the study of power must deal with the issue of inequality in society.

3. a case study

now we are ready to track down“power” in a‘livediscourse. the fact that speech is a social activity is out of question. it does not represent the typical speech and the term is settled on in the need of a better one.

3.1 analysis of vocabulary

the text has many words and expressions which bear the interference of power. the salient ones are divided into three sets.

3.1.1 colloquialisms

the purpose of the speech is to make an announcement of a prohibition order, which should be very formal in terms of its wording. but in this instance, the speaker makes a skillful blending of formal and informal styles, by recourse to colloquialisms.

all these words contribute to shorten the distance between the speaker and the addressees. the speaker is one of the leaders of the institute and also a teacher of the addressees (students). social distance, a fairly big one, certainly exists between the two sides. the informal, intimate-sounding, casual words help enormously in wiping out the psychological gap.

3.1.2 idioms and cliches

the second group is made up of positive terms in favor of the speaker or his party. they are mainly idioms and cliches:

“父母在不远游”(l50)

“林老头”(l97, l151)

when we see“父母在不远游”,an image of a filial son comes up in our minds. the speaker himself is a middle-aged man. and he calls himself“林老头”.we associate“老头”with an amiable old man, who may be wise due to his rich experience. a wise old man does not give ill advice to young people. by this self-addressing term the speaker seems to say that since i m old what i m saying can not be bad for you and you can count on me.

3.1.3 derogatory terms

negative terms are used when the third party, who is not present, is concerned. an order of appearance wi11 be followed.“个体户”(l91, l105) is a term for self-employed business owners, namely a person who has himself, and his family members as his employees. the family possesses the means of production and the business is usually small. because of its smallness we dont attach much importance to it.

the speaker makes use of these derogatory terms on the third party, thus keeping a distance between the addressees and them. some of the words even work to place the two parties on antagonistic sides, with their linkage ignored.

3.2 summary

in a case of competition between the first and the third parties, the speaker tries to pull the addressed into his camp, resulting in a polarization with the first and the second parties on one side and the third party on the other. the relation between the second and the third parties overlooked.

the vocabulary device contribute immensely to the addressees peaceful reception and glad acceptance of the order, though it will result in the loss of their interest. this is seen from the much laughter throughout and applause at the end of the speech, which come from the addressed.

4.conclusion

power has been found to be existent in the discourse of a public speech in a chinese context. devices are applied in the exercising of power.

traces and signs of power has been detected in a chinese discourse. the linguistic means for the successful exercising of power are exposed. the consciousness of the dominated may be expected to be raised. but our job is not finished yet. what remains to be done is the exploration of methods, mainly linguistic means, for the underprivileged to fight against the power-holders to protect their interest.

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[2]bourdieu,pierre.2001 (en.ed.).language & symbolic power[m].polity press.

[3]brown,gi11ian&yule,george.2008.discourse analysis[m].beijing:foreign language teaching and research press.

[4]bussmann,h.2000.routledge,dictionary of language and linguistics [m].beijing:foreign language teaching and research press.

[5]levinson,stephen c.2006.pragmatics [m].beijing:foreign languagemteaching and research press.

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