话语指及其篇章功能研究

话语指及其篇章功能研究

话语指及其篇章功能研究

【摘要】:人类之所以需要语言就是要用语言来谈论世界,可是语言一旦产生,语言本身也是一种存在,同样要用语言来谈论。目前作为语言学研究对象的主要是外指状态的语言,即研究语言是如何谈论语言之外的世界的。对于日常交际中如何用语言来谈论语言的现象还没有引起语言学界的足够重视。本文以汉语中用来谈论语言的必要条件——话语指为研究对象,在自元语言理论背景下,主要运用篇章语言学、话语分析、语用学、语义学、语言学、语言哲学的基本理论,按照从形式到功能的研究思路对此现象进行分析,旨在探讨汉语话语指的基本特征及其篇章功能。全文由三大篇组成,第一篇是总论,上篇讨论话语指的类型以及与话语指相关的语用现象——引语,下篇讨论话语指的篇章功能,共分七章。总论。本章简要介绍话语指研究的理论背景及与话语指相关的研究,指明话语指的研究对象以及深入研究的内容,说明本文的选题价值、研究思路与框架、研究理论与方法。第一章话语指称。本章根据语言单位包括形式与内容(意义)的特点将话语指称分为三个层次:整体指、形式指、内容指;根据指称特点的不同,对话语指称进行分类,最后分析话语指称语内部以及话语指称语与外指状态语言的指称在句法和功能上的差异。第二章话语指示。本章首先指出国内在话语指示的界定上存在的问题,并对话语指示进行界定,认为指示性与话语性是话语指示的本质特征。其次,根据话语指示的指示对象及其在篇章内外的表现对话语指示的类型进行分类。再次,分析话语

话语指及其篇章功能研究

指示与话语指称关的系以及其话语指示与一般指示的差异。认为话语指示语的所指对象可以在篇章中出现,是话语指示与一般指示的最大差异。第三章话语实示。本章在对实示进行界定的基础上,提出话语实示的层级分类系统。然后,着重讨论口语交际书面实示与篇章话语的书面实示的差异。接着,运用言语行为理论分析不同类型的话语实示的言语行为特征。最后,分析话语实示与话语指称和话语指示的关系。第四章引语。本章在国内外引语研究的基础上,对汉语的引语类型进行分类,将引语分为直接引语、间接引语、自由直接引语和自由间接引语,并提出了分类的标准。运用意向性理论分析引语的生成机制,讨论引语的递归结构。最后,分析引语与话语指称、话语指示和话语实示的关系。第五章话语指的篇章组织功能。本章讨论话语指照应与回指现象,分析话语指的篇章衔接功能以及文本(篇章)嵌入功能。分析话语照应以及话语回指/下指与一般照应和回指/下指之间的区别;分析话语指篇章衔接功能的表现形式以及不同性质的话语指衔接功能的差异;分析话语指文本嵌入功能的表现形式以及不同性质的话语指文本嵌入功能的差异。第六章话语指的篇章结构功能。本章讨论话语指的管界现象及其篇章结构的标记功能。着重分析话语指示语和话语指称语的篇章管界作用、引语的被管界问题,归纳确定话语管界的手段。讨论话语指的篇章宏观结构的标记功能与篇章局部结构的标记功能以及篇章结构功能实现的方式。【关键词】:话语指话语指称话语指示话语实示引语篇章功能照应功能篇章衔接篇章嵌入篇章管界篇章结构标记

话语指及其篇章功能研究

?【学位授予单位】:华东师范大学

?【学位级别】:博士

?【学位授予年份】:2005

?【分类号】:H14

?【目录】:总论11-39一、话语指研究的理论背景:从语言之外到语言自身11-16二、话语指:语言被谈论的必要条件16-31三、本文的选题价值与研究目标31-32四、已有的相关研究32-37五、本文的研究内容与文章的结构37-38六、本文的研究理论与方法38-39上篇话语指与引语39-126第一章话语指称39-621.1话语指称的三个层次与话语名词41-481.1.1话语指称的三个层次41-441.1.2话语名词44-481.2话语指称的类型48-521.2.1有指话语指称48-511.2.2无指话语指称51-521.3话语指称词语的句法与功能差异分析52-621.3.1话语指称词内部句法差异52-581.3.2话语指称与一般指称的差异58-62第二章话语指示62-832.1话语指示的界定62-692.1.1已有的界定及存在的问题62-642.1.2话语指示的本质特征64-692.2话语指示语69-772.3话语指示类型77-802.3.1篇内话语指示与篇外话语指示77-792.3.2核心话语指示与外围话语指示79-802.4话语指示与话语指称的关系80-812.5话语指示与一般指示的差异81-83第三章话语实示83-1013.1实示及其类型83-863.2口语交际的书面实示与篇章话语的书面实示86-983.2.1口语交际的书面实示86-933.2.2篇章话语的书面实示93-963.2.3口语交际的书面实示与篇章话语的书面实示的差异96-983.3话语实示的言语行为特征98-1003.4话语实示与话语指称、

话语指及其篇章功能研究

话语指示的关系100-101第四章引语101-1264.1引语的类型与功能101-1114.1.1已有的分类101-1034.1.2我们的分类103-1094.1.3引语的语用功能109-1114.2引语形成的意向性解释111-1174.3言语动词、意向动词与言说语境117-1214.4引语的递归结构121-1234.5引语与话语指的关系123-126下篇话语指的功能126-177第五章话语指的篇章组织功能126-1525.1话语指的篇章衔接功能126-1475.1.1话语照应126-1295.1.2话语回指和下指129-1405.1.3不同性质的话语指的篇章衔接功能140-1425.1.4话语指衔接功能的语言表现形式142-1445.1.5不同性质的话语指的衔接力144-1475.2话语指的篇章(文本)嵌入功能147-1525.2.1文本与视域147-1485.2.2话语指为什么具有文本嵌入功能148-1495.2.3话语指文本嵌入的枢纽149-1515.2.4不同性质的话语指文本嵌入功能的差异151-152第六章话语指的篇章结构功能152-1776.1话语指的篇章管界152-1706.1.1管界与话语管界152-1536.1.2话语管领词的管界确定153-1636.1.3引语的管界问题163-1706.2话语指的篇章结构标记功能170-1776.2.1话语指为什么具有篇章结构标记功能170-1716.2.2话语指的篇章宏观结构标记功能171-1746.2.3话语指的篇章局部结构标记功能174-177参考文献177-181后记181 本论文购买请联系页眉网站。

 

第二篇:语篇识解中话语标记功能和理据研究——关联理论视角

河南大学

硕士学位论文

语篇识解中话语标记功能和理据研究——关联理论视角

姓名:王晓伟

申请学位级别:硕士

专业:英语语言文学

指导教师:杨朝军

20090401

中文摘要

话语标记通常标示语篇扩展趋向,而非描述语篇本身,主要体现了语篇层面的语用功能而没有严格的语法限制。

相比那些反映语言能力的语言现象,由于语言学对于语言运用的关注以及探究句子层面之上语言现象的渴望,话语标记的研究才引起了学界的注意。随着1987年,第一本独著《话语标记》的出现,此后二十余年间关于此项研究逐渐形成了三个走向,但是对于话语标记语篇识解中的功能以及语篇层面下存在理据的研究还未认真思索。所以作者在本文中主要关注两点问题:其一是在关联理论框架下话语标记在语篇识解中的具体作用;其--贝,tJ是找出话语标记存在于语篇中的理据。

本文所采用的理论为关联理论,研究方法则是演绎、定性和假设性的。依据所采用理论以及方法,作者推测话语标记在语篇层面主要起到限制和标示功能,而关联理论的最大关联原则可以解释话语标记的存在理据。

依据关联理论的基本准则和最新关于语用意义的探讨,本文首先指出话语标记对于显性和隐性意义的影响。随后则重点探讨关联理论框架内话语标记在隐性意义获取过程中的作用:对于说话者明示行为的影响,说话者和听话人所共享的语境的影响以及对于听话人推理过程的影响。此外话语标记的存在理据研究也是一个重点。

经过探讨,本文主要取得以下发现:

1,

2,

3,话语标记在帮助取得最大关联的同时可以指示说话人的表达意图;话语标记的指示功能主要发生在推理过程时中央系统的逻辑输入位置;从语篇识解角度来讲特定话语标记作为筛选连贯关系的过滤器是必需

的。关键词:话语标记;话语识解;功能;理据;关联理论

Abstract

Discoursemakers(DMs)arethoseexpressionsindicatingthewaytoexpand

atadiscourse,notdescribingitandrevealingthepragmaticfunctions

usuallynothediscourselevel,grammaticalconfining.

toshowthelinguisticComparedwiththeanalysisofotherlinguisticphenomena

competenceofhumanbeings,thearousinginterestintoDMsamongtheacademicstaff

turntoisinaccordancewiththeuprisingofthelinguisticrealizethesignificanceof

performanceandthedemandtounveilthemysteriouselementsabovethesentencelevel.InthepasttwodecadesofyearsafterthepublicationofthegreatbookDiscourseMarkers,thefirstmonographonDMswrittenbyDeboraSchiffrin,itisgenerallyacknowledgedbyscholarsthattherearethreebranchesofDMsresearch.HoweveLtheresearchofDMsindiscourseinterpretationis

narrowlyconcentratesonnotseriouslycalculated.So,theauthorexacttwopointsinthispaper:theroleofDMsintheperspectiveofdiscourseinterpretationandthemotivationofcertainDMsexistingindiscourse.

ThetheoryadoptedinthispaperisRTandthemethodologyisdeductive,qualitativeandhypothetical.Confinedtothetheoryandmethodology,theauthorsupposesthatthefunctionsofDMsindiscourseinterpretationareconstrainingandindicatingandthemotivationofthemcouldbeillustratedbytheprincipleoftheoptimalrelevance.

BasedonthedoctrinesofRTandthelatesttheoriesofmeanings

aneffectinpragmatics,thisonpaperfirstlypointsoutthattheexistenceofDMshas

explicaturesbothleveloftheprocessofandimplicatures.Afterthat,theauthorswitchestoworkout

inferringimplicaturesinthescopeofRT,whichisseparatedintothreesteps,theostensivebehaviorsofthespeaker

oftheaspreparations,thecontextualeffectssharedbybothtospeakerandhearerandtheinferenceofthehearer.Besides,thetentativeknowthemotivationofutilizingcertainDMsisanothertopic.

Throughtheanalysis,theauthormakesacontributioninthosethreeaspects:1,DMsisusedas

oftheallindicatortopredicttheutterancestoandoutworkouttheintentionspeakerbythehearerthemomenttheyhelphimfind

attheoptimalrelevance;2,TheindicatingfunctionofDMsmainlyhappens

ofcentralsystemsintheprocessofinference;theaddressoflogicalentries

3,CertainDMsarenecessaryintheperspectiveofdiscourseinterpretationfiltertoselectpotentialcoherencerelations.asaKeyWords:DiscourseMarkers;DiscourseInterpretation;Functions;Motivation;

RelevanceTheory

关于学位论文独立完成和内容创新的声明

硼删说一测丝{一簿荔粼熬臻,∥‘二‰≯}鬻箩;/夕妒》b』

学位印请冬,《学住论文作者》签名:一竺::盐爿墨』2.一

麓∥泌,’‰彰糍‰苏撼黪豫.,∥、+?气雾

学位获得者(学位论文作者)釜名:二幽匕虚

20D.

学位论文指导教师签名:20

Acknowledgements

Mydeepestgratitudegoesfirstandforemosttomysupervisor,ProfessorYangChaojan.for

thestageshisconstantencouragementandofthis

notguidance.Hehishaswalkedmethroughallofthewritingthesis.Withoutconsistentandilluminatinginstruction,thisthesiscouldhavereacheditspresentform.

Secondly,IshouldgivemyheartythankstoalltheotherfacultymembersoftheCollege,ProfessorXuShenghURn,ProfessorNiuBaoyi,ProfessorZhangKeding,ProfessorGuoShangxingandProfessor

variousCOurSeSMa8aojinfortheirpatientinstructionsinandtheirprecioussuggestionsformystudyhere.

Lastly,mythankswouldgotomybelovedfamily,myparentsandmywifeHuFeng,fortheirlovingconsiderationsandgreatconfidenceinmeallthroughthesethreeyears.Ialsoowemysinceregratitudetomyfriendsandmyfellowclassmateswhogavemetheirhelpandtimeinlistening

theditticultcoursetomeandhelpingmeworkoutmyproblemsduringofthethesis.

ChapterOne

Introduction

Discoursecouldbeanylengthofverbalexpressions.Usually,itissyntacticform.As

an

independent

not

discourse,itshouldbecoherentinorder

to

beunderstood

only

correctly,butalsoexactly.

Tointerpret

discourse,insomesense,is

to

knowinwhichwaythediscourseis

area

coherent.Thecoherenceofdiscourseisanalysis,whichisthe

time-honoredtopicinthe

ofdiscourse

counterpartto

thesuperficialformallinkageofdiscourse,namely,

cohesion.Usually,“acoherentdiscoursehasrevealsthat

on

well-organizedconstruction,which

call

the

basisofinternal

panemsandregularitieswe

formulate

generalizationsaboutwhichkindsofunitsprecedeandfollowwhichotherkindsofunits,both

in

single-sentence

utterancesand

in

longertexts

and

conversations’’

(Johnstone,2008:78).At

structure

thepresent

time,mostscholars

acknowledgethehierarchical

ofdiscourse,whosebasicelementsarethelinearpresentationof

linguistic

units,sincethelinguistic

or

units(here,the

unitsareclauses)areinsinglelines,preceding

followingeachother.So,thereiswrittentext,does

basicassumptionthatdiscourse,boththespoken

and

not

consistofrandomseriesofisolatedsentences,butusually

forms

coherentstructureofunitsindifferentsizesandnature.Inotherwords,theunits

shouldbeinternallylinkedfromthevariouskindsofcoherencerelationsconstituentunitsofthe

text

among

to

thethe

as

involved.Andsuch

units

are

alsoexternally

linked

aspectsofthecommunicativesituation,whichincludesthespeakerandtheaddresseewellastheirattitudes,beliefs

and

intentions.Suchrelations,which

Canbemarked

or

unmarked,arethebasicfactorsprocessingandinterpreting

ofdiscourserelies

on

discourse.Thecoherence

the

extenttO

whichtherelationsCan

beexactlyconstruedbythe

addresseethroughinference.Suchrelationspre-existintheaddresser’Smind.

1.1

Motivation

and

0bjectives

Untilnow,itiswellrecognizedthattherearetwokindsofcoherence,local

coherenceandglobalcoherence,ofwhich,theformeroneistofindthecoherenceoftheadjacentunits,andthelattertodiscoverthecoherenceofunitsseparatedfromeachotherindistance.Astheauthorhasdiscussedintheprecedingpart,intheviewofcoherence.orientedscholars,tointerpretcoherentrelationswhicharebasicSinceinthispaper,themainadiscoursetosomeextentistoexaminethesemanticelements,bothattheglobalandlocallevel.ajobistohavetentativeanalysisofDMsintheprocessofinterpretingdiscourse,thepaperwillbenarroweddownintotheroleofDMsinthefieldofinterpretingadiscourseintheaccountoftheadjacentpairs.

Usually,forthesakeofeconomy,theaddressorwouldsupposetheexpressionsheplannedtosayareclearenoughwithou.tthenecessity

telladdresseewhere

areandtroubleofexplicatinganylinguisticformstotogo,forexample,(1)Thatwe

againstainthemidstofcrisisisnowwellunderstood.(2)Ournationisatwar,far-reachingnetworkofviolenceandhatred.(3)Oureconomyisbadlyweakened,a

onconsequenceofgreedandirresponsibilitythepartofsome,butalso

aourcollectivefailuretomakehardchoicesandpreparethenationfor

speechinChicagoonnewage(excerptsofObama’SinaugurationJanuary20,2009).

theelaborationofApparently,sentences(2)and(3)are

explicitsentence(1),withoutanyguidance,suchasitmeansthat,that括tosay,inotherwordswhichwouldberedundantinthisdiscourse.

So,somescholarsholdsomeradicalideas,oneofwhomisfromthebuilderoftheRhetoricalStructureTheory(RST),Mann&Thompson,

areimportant,withtheconjunctions①actingoccasionallyItistheimplicitrelationswhich

toconstraintherangeofpossiblerelationalpropositionswhichcarlariseatagivenpointinatext.”

(Mann&Thompson,1986:71)

Theapplicabilityofarelationdefinitionneverdependsdirectlyontheformofthetextbeinganalyzed;thedefinitionsdonotciteconjunctions,tense,orparticularwords?RST

notor,narrowlyspeaking,is①Owingtotherespectofauthor.herethewordconjunctionsisstillused.whichmay

j呶onekindofDMs,whicharenameddifferentlybecauseofthedifferentresearchinterest?2

structuresare,therefore,structuresoffunctionsratherthanstructuresofforms。

(Mann&Thompson,1987:19)

AccordingtotheadvocationsofMann&Thompson.itistheinternalcoherent

arelationthatreallydeterminestheinterpretationof

formsarediscourse,andotherlinguistictrivialfactors.Certainly,itisrighttosomeextent,butitisquestionable.Considerthefollowingexample:

3.Thecuisineremainstheenvyoflocalhotels.

4.Awarmbutunassuminghospitalitystillawaits.

5.[But】now,guestscallenjoytheresultsofextensiverenovations.

6.IncludingthenewlyrefurbishedLeClubPresident...

(Bishop,1993:81)

Here,butisaveryimportantunittointerpretthissegment,justlikeabeacontellingthecaptainwheretogo.AnincitationfromBishopputsitinthisway:

【…】Nowcertainlysignalsarecentchange,butthereisasenseinwhichtheissueof

apotentialin。compatibilityisside—stepped,andlines3--6,withoutbut,tendt.oreadlikesimple

listofthehotel’Spositiveattributes.Thatis,the‘concessive’senseislost.Itmaybe,therefore。thatcertainrhetoricalrelationsdoinfactgenerallyrequire

differentiatedfromaallovertsignal,inordertobesimpleJOINTrelation.

(Bishop,1993:81)

Anditisclearnowthat,somekindofDMs

usedtoarenotoccasionallybmnecessarilyidentifythedefiniterelationsamongclauses.Theexistenceofsuchkindofmarkers,anumberofdifferentwordclasses,e.g.adverbs,connectors,paremheticalexpressions,aswellasparticles,willleadaddresseesintodifferentdirectionstogetwhatthemeaningofadiscourseis,andtheintentionofaddresser.DMs,ifnotnecessary.atleastshouldbeonedecisiveparametertobuilddifferentkindsofcoherencerelations.

toInthispaper,theresearchisconcemedwithDMswhoseprimaryfunctionis

monitortheprocessofinterpretingthecoherencerelationspragmatically

contextualfactorsinthecommunicativesituation3pushandbytheadjusted

Apparently,tointerpretadiscourseismuchbeyondtherecognitionofthepotentialcoherencerelationsbyimplicitcombinationofthesemanticmeaning,andcoherencerelationsCannotbesimplyidentifiedonlythroughtheconstrualofsemanticmeaningof

cognitiveindependentclauses,whichmaymisleadusintoneglectingthesocialand

factorsofdiscourseandthefailureofcommunication.So,thetheoreticalvalueofmypaperreliesonitsdevotiontoprovetheconsiderablyexplanatorypoweroftherelevancetheory.Again,thespecificroleofdiscoursemakersinthewholesystemof

theeffectonlanguage,especially

Throughthe

enrichedtheinterpretationofdiscourse,isalsoacknowledged.analysis,theimproved.teachinganddailyusageofdiscoursemarkerswillbeand

1.2ResearchScopeandMethodology

aAseveryoneknows,threeaspectsCanbetakenintoconsiderationwhen

phenomenonispresented,namely,syntactic,semanticgoeswithoutsayingthatthosethreeaspectsarelinguistandpragmaticperspective.ItalsoapplicabletoDMs.However,theselectedtopicofthispaperisthefunctionsofDMsindiscourseinterpretationmotivation.So,thesemanticandtheandpragmatic

aaspectsareoverwhelminglyinvolved.toTraditionally,tointerpret

themeaningofit.Simply

embeddedinthe

contribution

sometimes

theretodiscourse,anylengthofverbalexpressions,isknowandclassicallyspeaking,thatistherecoveryofpropositionsnotdiscourseinthescopeofsemantics.DMs,ifall,havenothepropositionalmeaning,butdotaketheirrolesinthelinguisticsystem,inevitable.So,aretheyredundantinthescopeofevensemantics?IfSO,areareanyotherevidencestoprovethevalueofthem?And,iftheyperipheralinsingleposition,thendotheyhavesomespecialfunctionswhencombinedlinguisticiterns?withother

With

discoursethedevelopmentofpragmatics,itbecomesconvincingthattointerpretnotademandstherecognitionofseparatedpropositionalmeaning,butanoverallrecognitionofthesemanticandpragmatic

4meaning.However,ifthispointgoes

toDMs,thenisthereanyprobabilitythattheyplay

aasanassistanttobuildthesemanticmeaningof

todiscourse,andcompared、)I,itllthesemanticcontribution。thecontributionprocesspragmatic

outmeaningcouldbemoresignificant?Furthermore,intheofworkingthepragmaticmeaning,couldtherebeanyperiodinwhichDMsdohave

specialcontribution?IfSO,shouldwedeclarethatwehavefoundthemotivationofDMsexistinginthediscourse?

Onawhole,thespecialroleofDMsonthecognitiveinference

aandcommunicationisthekeyissueofthispaper,fortheinterpretationofdiscoursemustgotothe

paperisRT.cognitiveabilityofhumanbeingsandthetheoryinvolvedinthis

Concretely,thereareseveralsub-tasksasfollowing:

1,DoDMshaveaneffectonthesemanticandpragmaticmeaningof

onadiscourse?inthe2,What

scopeofRT?iStheeffectofDMstheostensive.inferentialcommunication

3,WhatisthemotivationofmarkingcertaincoherencerelationswitIlDMsanalyzedbyRT?

SincethekeyinterestisnottogiveacomplicatedanddetailedclassificationonDMsandcoherencerelationwiththeaidofcorpus,themethodwillbeempirical,qualitativeanddeductive.Themaintheoryadopted

oninthispaperisRT,awell-acknowledgedandacceptabletheorybased

inference,whichmustbe

tooltoonethecognition-orientedpragmaticofthehottrendsofthepragmaticresearchandapowerfulinterpretdiscourses.Aftertheanalysisoftheinferentialprocessofdiscourse

awithDMs,thepaperwillpresentframeworktoshowthewayDMsinfluencethe

communicativeprocess.Duetothelackofthedemandedfacilitiesandprocedures,theanalysis

willbeisnotbasedonsomeexperimentsonthecommunicators,andthewholeprocessaapredictablehypothesis.Nevertheless,whattheauthorappliesinthispaperis

cailcomparativelymaturetheory,which

ordertoensuretheevidentialityoftheresearch.Inimprovetheevidentiality,logicalgorithmandsomefigureswillbeshowninthispaper.气

1.3DataCollection

ItgoeswithoutsayingthatDMsdoexistinanylanguage,SOdocoherencerelations.ThetopicofthisthesisistheEnglishDMsindiscourseinterpretation.Inordertohaveaconvincing

scholarsanalysis,thearedataselectedshouldbetypicalandnatural.So,moreandmoreapttofindthenaturallanguageresourcesfromOurdaily

communicationforfearofreducingtheevidentialityoftheirresearch.Inthispaper,mostoftheutterancesarefromdailycommunicationorselectedfromotherscholars.

aBut,fewofthemareartificialforthepurposeofgivingcompleteillustrationofthe

differenceamongdefiniteDMsinthescopeofinference.However,theseartificialresourceswillbeveryvaluableforthetheoreticillustrationandmanyobjectiveandlogicalalgorithmwillappearinthispaper.So,fewartificialresourceswillnotreducethisP印ertoafakedone.

1.4OrganizationoftheThesis

Asforthe

Chapterstructureofthispaper,therewillbefivechapters:reasononeisabriefintroduction,whichmainlytellsreadersthewhythewriterchoosesthistopicanditsvalue,besides,themainstructureofthispaper.

Chaptertwoistheliteraturereview.Inthispart,thecontributionsofrespectablescholarsonDMswillbepresented,whichincludethreeorientations,coherent,pragmaticandcognitive,eachofwhichwillbepresentedwiththeanalysisbyleadingfiguresinthis

thisparttofield.Thedefinitions,classifications,featuresofDMswillbegiveninensuretherationalityandclarityoftheanalysis.

Chapterthreeshowsreadersthetheoreticalfoundationofthispaper.Itbeginswith

essencethediscussionoftwoprevailingcommunicationmodelsofillustratingtheofthe

isinterpretationprocedure.Basedonthisthedifferentiationof

atwolayersofmeaningsintroducedintothispart.Thefollowingpartistogive

whichsketchydescriptionofRTinmanyfactorsareinconnectionwithDMsanddiscourseinterpretation.Afterthat,thecomprehensionprocedureandthehypothesisofDMsindiscourseinterpretationare6

presented.

Chapterfouristheanalysisofthesignificance

exactofDMsintheprocessofdiscourseoninterpretation.TheverybeginningistheeffectofDMsthewaytodigout

explicaturesandimplicaturesofdiscourse.ThesecondpartwillbethedetailedofanalysisandDMsandrelevance,whichincludesthedirectroleof

thirdpartistoDMsoncontext,ostentioninference.The

andgivetwofigurestoshowthecomprehensionprocedure,afunctionsofDMsindiscourseinterpretation.Theforthpartiscasestudytoshowthemotivationofutilizingcertain

hasfoundinthispart.DMs.Thelastpartistosummarizewhattheauthor

Chapterfiveistheconclusiontodemonstratethefindingsandlimitationofthe

ofsuchkindofresearchowingtothelatestanalysis,andalsothebri出future

developmemoflinguistictheoriesandacknowledgedDMsindailycommunication.7

ChapterTwo

LiteratureReview

2.1Introduction

Insuch

as

our

dailylife,whencommunicationhappens,we

youknow,that捃tosay,butandSO

can

getsuchkindofwords,

English,these

well

on.Whenlearning

words

occur

infilms,soapoperas,speeches,eveninformalwritings.Usually,thoseusedasfeedbacks

an

to

expressions

are

thepreceding

sentence

ofspeakers,and

to

at

thesame

timetoexpress

attitude

not

or

giveadditionalmeanings

thefollowing

status

utterances.

oflexicons,

Thoseexpressionsarealthoughtheyarecomplete

inlinewith

any

traditionalgrammatical

usually

derivedfrom

adverbs,conjunctionsandinterjections,eventhe

areDMs.Owing

to

sentences

intraditional

grammar.They

theidiosyncratic

featuresandimportanceofthem,theresearchofDMshasturnedintoin

growthindustry

linguistics(Fraser,1999).Inthe

on

pastseveraldecadesofyears,alotofpapershave

published

thisissue

to

produce

panoramicandprofound

description.Since

differentscholarsareapt

touse

differenttechnicaltermsfordifferentacademicpurpose

andinterest,morethantwentyYongping

sentence

et

terms

arecoined(fordetailedinformation,seeRan

mostacceptable

a1.,2006).Untilnow,the

and

influential

et

terms

a1.,1

are

connectives(Halliday&Hasan,1976),semanticconjuncts(Quirk

985),

discourseparticles(Schorup,1985;Fischer,2006),discourseconnectives(Blakemore,

1987,1992,2002),DMs(Schiffrin,1

987),pragmaticmarkers(Fraser,1990,1998),

discourse

operators(Redeker,1990,1991),pragmaticoperators(Ariel,1994),cue

phrases(Knott&Dale,1994;Knott&Sanders,1997;Knott,2000;Sanders&

Noordman。2000).The

discourse

meticulousobservationofthose

ofDMsarethehottopic

names

shows

US

thatthe

andpragmaticaspects

andscholars

acknowledgethat

theroleofthemistobe

Inthispaper,the

covers

knot

tocongeal

theadjacentclauses.

term

DMsisappliedforitspopularity,especiallyinChina,which

allofthe

technicalterms.Generallyspeaking,as

one

specialandunique

phenomenon,DMshavetheirdistinctivefeatures.Phonologically,DMsareshortand

reducedinflseparatetonegroup(Brinton,1996)and

areputatbeginallintonationalcontour(Maschler,1998).Syntactically,they

notthebeginningofsentenceandoptional,nopartofthesyntacticstructureandlooselyconnected.Semantically,DMshavepropositionalmeaning

farasandnotaffecttruthconditionalitymeaning(Brinton,1996).Asstylistics/sociolinguisticsisconcerned,DMsaresaidtobeprevalentinspeech,usedmorebywomenthanbymenandstylisticallystigmatized(Andersen,1998).

Halliday&HasandrewIn1976,themasterpieceCohesioninEnglishwrittenby

almosteveryscholar’Sattention,whoisinterestedintheanalysisofdiscourse.Inthisbook,thewritersdonotgiveUSthetermDMs,nottomentionitsfeaturesand

istreatedseparatelyapplications.Nevertheless,asoneofcohesivedevices,conjunction

asonechapter.Inthisbook,theyclearlysaid,

Conjunctiveelementsarecohesivenotinthemselvesbutindirectly…buttheyexpresscertainmeaningswhichpresupposethepresenceofothercomponentsinthediscourse.

(Halliday&Hasan,2001:226.originalemphasis)

Asforthissentence,atleasttwoimportantimpliedunderstandingsshouldbecapturedinourmind.Itisclearthattheyarecohesiveindirectly.Inotherwords,thesingleexistenceofconjunctionisnotpowerfulenoughtobeasemanticunitpromisingthecohesionofatext,which

onoccurswheretheinterpretationofsomeelementsinthediscourseisdependent

cohesivedevicesdonotthatofanother(Halliday&Hasan,2001).Furthermore,createthemselvesmeanings;theyarecluesusedbyspeakersandhearerstofindthemeaningswhichunderliesurface

ofutterances(Schiffrin,2006).beaThesecondtruthisthatthemeaningconjunctionsistomarkertopresuppose

definiteelementsinthediscourse.The

acceptanceappearanceofdefiniteconjunctionconditionstheandoddnessofpropositionalmeaningsofthefollowingsentences.

Certainly,itiswellknownthat

haveoneconjunctionsdonotequalDMs,butconjunctionsimportantfeature,connectivity,whichisalsooneofthefeaturesofDMs.And

athetaxonomyofconjunctionsbyHallidayandHasanhasfar—reachingeffectonthe

researchofdiscourseconnectives,whichconsistofadditive,adversative,causal

9and

temporal.Amongthosefourtypes,therearetwoelementstobeconsidered

relationstodemarcateexternal

alethesubtypesofthem,externalrelationswhichexistasbetweenphenomenonexpressingexperientialfunctionoflanguage,intemalrelationswhich

internaltOthecommunicationsituationexpressinginterpersonalfunctionoflanguage(Schiffrin,2006).

Severalyearslater,DMsattractedsomeresearchesofpragrnatics.InhisbookPragmatics,LevinsonconsideredDMs

althoughhedidnotasadistinctclassworthyofstudyonitself,giveitaname.Hesuggestedthat

andphrasesinEnglish,andno“…therealemanywordsdoubtmostlanguagesthat

discourse.Examplesaleindicatetherelationshipbetweenanutteranceandtheprior

utterance-initialusagesofbut,therefore,inconclusion,tothe

well,besides,actually,allinall,SO,afterall,and

wordshaveatleastaSOcontrary,still,however,anyway,on.Itisgenerallyconcededthatsuchcomponentofmeaningthatresiststruth-conditionaltreatment…What

thatcontainstheyseemtodois.indicate,ofteninverycomplex

themisaways,justhowtheutteranceresponseto,oracontinuationof,someportionofthepriordiscourse.’’

(Levinson,1983:87?88)

Althoughtheresearchesofthosescholarsare

latestdevelopment.itiSunreasonabletoalittlesuperficialcomparedwiththedoubtonhaveathedevotionoftheirpioneeringwork,whichfoundsthebasementofthefurtherresearches.2.2DeborahSchiffrinandCoherence-basedApproach

In1987,anotherinfluentialscholar,DeboraSchiffrin,publishedaprovokingacademicbooktitledDiscourse

scholarsofcoherence.based

publiclyadmiredMarkerswhichacknowledgesherasoneoftheleadingandfunction.orientedanalysisofDMs.InherbooLshethat‘‰eanalysisofDMsispartofthemoregeneralanalysisofdiscoursecoherence”(Schiffrin,2006:49).Beforetheenumerationanddetailedanalysisofoh.well,and,but,or,so,because,now,then,Y’knowand,mean,shespentlotsofwordsprovidingreadersamodelofdiscoursecoherence,whichincludesexchange10

structure,actions

structure,ideational

structure,participation

frameworkand

informationstageinaccordancewiththethreepropertiesofdiscourseinherview,

structure,meaningandactions,forshebelieves“coherencewoulddepend

speaker’Ssuccessfulintegrationofdifferentverbalmessagein

ona

and

nonverbaldevicestosituate

an

interpretive

cues

as

frame,and

hearer’Scorrespondingsyntheticabilityto

to

respondtosuch

totalityinorder

interpretthatmessage”(Schiffrin,2006:

structures,

22).DMs

ale

indicatorsofthelocationofutteranceswithintheemerging

meaning,and

unitsofa

actionsofdiscourseandsequentiallydependentelementswhichbracket

forthefivedistinctiveplanes,each

one

talk(Schiffrin,2006).As

hasitsown

typeofcoherence:

ExchangeStructure.whichreflectsthe

mechanics

oftheconversationalinterchange

(ethnomethodology)andshowstheresultoftheparticipantturn-takingandhowlhesealtemations

are

relatedtOeachother;

ActionStructure.whichreflectsthesequenceofspeechdiscourse;

actswhich

occur

withinthe

IdeationalStructure,whichreflectscertainrelationshipsbetweentheideas(propositions)found

withinthediscourse,including

cohesiverelations,topic

relations,and

functional

relations;

ParticipationFramework,whichreflectsthewaysinwhichthespeakersandhearersrelateto

one

can

another

as

wellasorientationtoward

utterances;and

management

ofknowledge

InformationState,whichreflectstheongoingorganizationandandmeta-knowledgeasitevolves

over

thecourseofthediscourse.

(Fraser,1999:934)

Giventhefiveplanes,eachDMoftheselectedfromthosefiveaspects,primarilyrelatedto

one

11markersis

analyzedjudging

ofthem.Amongthose11markers。and,

but,orarediscourseconnectivesinherview.Asforthemade

analysis

ofthem,Schiffrin

pragmatics.In

conclusionofthemwiththreefactorsof

syntax,semanticsand

theprocessofdiscussion,shepaidmoreattentiontothecontroversyofpragmaticand

11

semanticanalysisofconjunctionbased

context

on

thedifferenceofmeaning-minimalisttreating

as

asource

ofinferencesinteracting、析tlltheminimal

treating

contextasa

meaning

of

conjunctions

and

the

meaning—maximalist

with

provisionofpropositionalmeaning

compatible

thereferentialinformationconveyedby

zero,contrastand

conjunction.Andthe

respectively.The

hearer-option

semanticmeaningofand,but,orispragmatic

effect

of

them

is

disjunction

speaker?continue,speaker—return

and

respectively.

Aftertheanalysis,Schiffrinholdsthatmarkersdo

filledwithmarkers

not

havemeaning;itisthe

aroundthe

slotslot.

that

putsmeaning

on

themowing

to

theutterances

So,“markersselect

throughthe

content

meaningrelation

form

whateverpotentialmeaningsareprovided

of

talk,andthendisplaythat

relation”(Schiffrin,2006:318original

emphasis).

Atlast,sherepresentedfourspecificconditionsofmarkers,

tobesyntacticallydetachablefromasentence;

tobecommonaltyusedininitialpositionofanutterance;tOhavearangeofprosodiccontours;

tObeabletOoperateatbothlocalandgloballevelofdiscourse.

discourse,and

on

different

planes

of

(Schiffrin,2006:328)

Thoseconditionsarecompatible

with

thecharacteristicsprovidedbySchourup

(1999),connectivity,optimality,non—truth-conditionality,weakclauseassociation,initiality,oralityandmulti-categoriality.

Apparently,DMsintheviewofSchiffrinarepassiveandfunctional.Themeaning

ofDMsaredeterminedbythe

utterancesaround

them,andthesemantic

tothe

meaning

speaker

of

themcouldbeempty,eventhepragmaticmeaningareorientedhearer

and

without

connectiontothelanguageitself.So,theinformationconveyedbyDMs

isempty.

Inthe

beginning

of1990s,Redeker(1990,1991),whoisalsointerestedintherole

12

of

DMs(she

callsDMsdiscourse

operator)to

cohere

text,stronglyopposedsome

to

ideasprovidedbySchiffrin.Inherpapers,sheattemptedpragmatic

combinethesemanticand

analysis

ofDMsandalsotheinteractiveeffectofcognition

core

and

context,

to

suggestingthat‘"themeaningshouldspecifythemarker’Sintrinsiccontribution

thesemanticrepresentationthatwillconstrainthecontextualinterpretationofthe

utterance”(Redeker,1991:1164).As

illustratedrespectivelyasfollowing:

forwhatDMsanddiscourse

coherenceare,she

“…awordorphrase…thatisutteredwiththeprimaryfunctionofbringingtothelistener's

attention

particularkindoflinkageoftheupcomingutterancewiththeimmediatediscourse

context.Anutteranceinthisdefinitionis

an

intonationallyaridstructurallybounded,usually

clausalunit.’’

“…allowforimplicitcoherencerelationsandforthesimultaneousrealizationofsemantic

and

pragmaticcoherencelinks,irrespectiveoftheirbeingsignaledby

DM.’’

(Redeker,1991:1168)

DifferentfromSchiffrin,theanalysisofRedekerendowsforthereistheupcoming

core

DMs晰t11an

activestatus,

meaninginternalizedintoDMs.111efunctionofthemistolinkthe

context,butDMsstilldo

littletothecoherenceof

utteranceswiththe

discourse.

ThescholarsmentionedabovetreatedDMsastheirprimary

and

soleresearchtopic.

cue

Differentfromthem,therearesomeotherscholarswhomentionedDMs(theycall

phrases)toparsethediscoursewiththeultimategoalofgenerating

coherentdiscourse

naturally,includingHobbs(1985),Mann&Thompson(1986,1987),Hovy(1990),

Sanderset

a1.(1992),Knott&Dale(1994),Taboada(2006).Among

nature

them,researchers

suchthat‘'the

forthe

haveaddressedthe

content

ofrelationsamongthe

sentences

of

atext

ofonesentencemightprovideelaboration,circumstances,or

explanation

contentof

another”(Knott&Dale.1994:35).As

relations(between60%and70%of

13

fortherelationbetweenDMsand

thatthereare

coherencenumberof

relations(rhetoricalrelations),Taboada(2006)holds

thetotal,on

hi【gh

not

average)which

are

signaled.So,DMsarejust

one

peripheralelementoftheresearches.

scopeof

Admittedly,thepioneeringworkofthisgroupbringsDMsunderthe

coherence,whichrevealsthefunctionsofDMsinorganizingcomplete

coherentdiscourse.The

understanding

oftheirwork

can

providereaderswith

wholepictureof

coherentdiscourseincludingDMs.However,astheoverwhelmingoralfeatureofDMs,thisapproachhasAgaill,thereaders

no

pointrevealingthepragmaticfactors

clearofthesubtypesofDMs.

and

syntacticstatusofthem.

arenot

2.3BruceFraserandGrammatical-pragmaticApproach

Asanotherimportantbeholderinterestedinhisown

andscholarofDMs,BruceFraserseemstobemore

term,pragmatic

markers,eventhoughlaterheacceptstheterm

DMs.

In1996,hepublished

far-reachingarticlePragmatic

Markers.InCan

thispaper,he

assumesevery

sentence

has

directmessagepotential,which

beeliminated,added,includestwoparts,

distortedinthe

concrete

context.Andthemeaningof

on

sentence

propositionandmoodmarkers.Based

thisdifferentiation,therearefourkindsof

messages,namelybasicmessageusingpropositionasitscontent,commentarymessage

providing

comment

on

thebasicmessage,parallel

messagesignaling

all

entire

separatemessagefromthebasicsignaling

andcommentarymessages,anddiscoursemessage

to

messagespecifyinghowthebasicmessageisrelated

one

theforegoing

discourse.DMs,as

subtypeof

pragmatic

markers,whichincludestopicchange

markers,contrastivemarkers,elaborativemarkersandinferentialrelationshipbetweenthethe

utterances

markers,signalthe

on

adjacent

pairsandprovide

informationto

theaddresseehow

linkedbyDMstobeinterpreted.theroughillustration

on

Based

give

on

DMs,anotherpaperWhat

are

DMS7.intended

to

detailed

and

deepunderstandingofDMsWaspublishedin

to

1999.Themost

importantcontributionofthispaperis

give

USacanonical

form

as<S1.DM+S2>固to

。In2006.FraserchangedDMintolecxicalexpression,andthecanonicalformisS1一LE+S2

14

showtheutteranceslinkedbyDMs.Followingthestandardone,therearesomevariations,<S1,DM+S2>,<DM+S2,SI>③,whicharerespectivelyshowninfollowingexamples:

(1)Jackplayedtennis.AndMaryreadabook.

(2)Maryisangrywithyoubecauseyouranoverhercatwithyourcar.(3)Whilesheispregnant,Martinwillnottakeaplane(adoptedfromthispaper).Apparently,theformprovidedisnotpowerfulenoughtoillustratetheessenceofdiscourselinkedbyDMs.Underlyingthesuperficialform;therearestillsomeotherconcems,suchasthemeaningofthediscourse.Simplythinking,thereisthecombinationofutterancemeaningandDMs’meaning.However,itisnot,forthereisstillacontroversyaswhetherDMshavemeaning,andifthereismeaning,themeaningismonosemyorpolysemywithacoremeaning.

In2006,inTowards口.TheoryofDMs,Fraserprovidedmoreillustrationonit,andspecifically,eachDMhasaCOREMEANINGofageneralnaturewithvariousmeaningnuancestriggeredasafunctionof(i)thecoremeaningofthespecificDM,(ii)theinterpretationsofS2andS1,and(iii)thecontext,linguisticandotherwise.So,thereisonlyaninteractiverelationbetweenDMsandthediscourseslotsinwhichtheyOCCur:ontheonehand,DMsforcecertainrelationshipbetweenthesegmentsS2andS1byvirtueoftheCoreMeaningofthem,whileontheotherhand,thecontext,bothlinguisticandnon—linguistic,elaboratesandenrichestherelationshipbasedonthedetailspresented.Inotherwords,itistheCoreMeaningandcontextthatbuildtheoverallfunctionofDMsintheutterance,andDMsshouldbeconsideredasapragmaticclass.So,theexistenceofDMsdoeshaveallimpactonthefunctionofthewholesentence,eventhoughitisnotnecessarytocommandaDMtocreateacoherencerelationofutterances.And

DMsareexpressionsdrawnfromthesyntacticclassesofconjunctions,adverbials,orprepositionalphrases,havethesyntacticpropertiesassociatedwiththeirclassmembership,@AsfortherelationofmessagesexpressedbySIandS2.therearefourtypesaccordingtothepaperwrittenin2006.namely,a)Elaboration;b)Contrast:c)Inference;ord)Temporality.

have

meaningwhichisprocedural,andhave

CO—oecurrence

restrictionswhich

arg

in

complementarydistributionwiththeirconceptualcounterparts.

(Fraser,1999:946)

Havingprovidedtheformand

meaning,Frasergivesreadersthemainclassof

DMs:

DMswhichrelatemessages

a.Contrastivemarkersh

C011ate同m批俗

c?hferen。1a】marke璐d.

DMswhichrelatetopics

(Fraser,】999:946)

TheclassificationbyFraserdisplaysthedichotomy

on

messagesandtopics,which

permits

and

thepossibilityofabsorbing

newsubtypesinthisscalardivision.Itisvaluable

thatFraserhas

also

the

admitted

theCoreMeaningofDMs

still

and

theproceduralfunctionofthem,

thatwhat

the

cognitive

classificationsofthem.Itis

unclear

contributionsofDMSareindiscourses.

2.4DanielBlakemoreandRT-principledResearch

As

one

ofthemostinfluentialtheory,RTisutilizedto

analyzemany

linguistic

tomake

concerns,oneofwhichiSDMs.However,forBlakemore,themaininterestiS

research

on

discourse

connectives(DC)whichare

expressions

thatconstrainthe

interpretationofthe

utterances

thatcontainthembyvirtueoftheinferential

fromthecoherence-based

connections

approach,

even

theyexpress(Blakemore,1thisgroupdeniedquestioned

the

the

987).Different

analysis

significanceofthevalueofcoherencerelations,andofthe

use

primitivecognitiveentities

coherencerelations.In

1992,

Blakemorefurther

to

advocated

thatspeakersmay

thelinguistic

form

ofhis

utterance

guidethe

sentence

interpretationprocessandthespeakerwouldconstraintheinterpretationofeitherbyintonation

or

the

bythe

use

of

DMs.Therefore,DMsCan

constrain

theutteranceinterpretationprocess.AndtheusageofdifferentDMsCanberelevanttotheinformationconveyedbyanutteranceindifferentways.

Itmayallowthederivationofacontextualimplication(e.g.,SO,therefore,too,also);Itmaystrengthenallexistingassumption,byprovidingberetevidenceforit(e.g.afterall,moreoveLfurthermore);

Itmaycontradictasexistingassumption(e.g.however,stillnevertheless,but)Itmayspecifytheroleoftheutteranceinthediscourse(e.g.,anyway,incidentally,bytheway,finally).

(Blakemore,1992:138-141)

So,thechoiceofdifferentDMsinthesameadjacentpairwillcausedifferentexplanations,forexample:

(4)a:TomcanopenBill’Ssafe

b:Heknowsthecombination

Asfortherelationbetween口andb.thereareatleasttwointerpretationsmarkedbytwodifferentDMs(Blakemore,1996).

(5)a:TomcallopenBill’Ssafe

b:So,heknowsthecombination

(6)a:TomCanopenBill’Ssafe

b:缈Prall,heknowsthecombination

Apartfromthecapacitytoexternalizethepotentialrelationsbetweensentences,anotheroutstandingfeatureofDMsinthefieldofcognition—orientedistherelationbetweenDMsandthecontext(Rouchota,1996),forexample

(7)(Context:Peterisbackfromjogging)

Mary:Soyou’retryingtokeepfit

ItisnodoubtthattheconstrainingeffectandtheabilitytolinkthesentencetothecontextaretheprimarysignificancetobeincludedinthediscussionofDMs.ButthewayDMsconstrainstheillustrationandtheexactmeaningofDMsareanothertwovaluableissueswhichdrawtheattentionofthosescholars.

2.4.1TheConceptual/ProceduralDistinctionand

Inthelinguisticsystem,therecomparativelywords

or

are

DMs

whichproduce

certainwords

orsentences

exact

conceptinthemindofthereceiver.Asthecounterpart,someother

berepresented

aus

sentencescannot

concepts.ForBlakemore,DCs,豁onepart

ofDMs,differentfromthelexicalexpressionswhichhaveonly

conceptual

to

meaning,have

manipulatethe

procedural

meaning,which

consistsofinstructionsabouthow

conceptualrepresentationofthe

According

to

utterance.(Blakemore,1987,1992,2002).

of

the

analysis

Blakemore(1987),the

conceptual

meaning

is

truth-conditionalandproceduralmeaningis

non-truth--conditional.However,Wilson

andSperber(1993)did

theirminds,thereare

job

to

findtheintertwiningrelationamongthefourfactors.In

fourtypesofinformationof

abouttheaffairsitdescribes

sentence:propositional

thevariousspeech

and

it

illocutionarylnformation

intends

representationstobe

Based

on

and

acts

toperform,representationalandcomputational—information

informationabouthow

tO

aboutthe

manipulated,and

manipulatethem.

thisdefinition,throughtheanalysisoftherelatedconceptsofencoding,

providedfourtypesofwordsthat

Call

inference,implicatureandexplicature,they

differentiatedconceptualpropositionconceptual

be

withrespect

to

thefourtypesofinformation.Contentwords

are

and

truth-conditional,whichencodeconcepts

bythe

and

of

areconstituentsofthe

adverbials

expressed

utterance.Various

types

sentence

are

are

of

andnon-truth—conditional,whichencodeconceptsand

constituents

not

thepropositionexpressedbutofthehigher-levelexplicatures.Discourseconnectivessuch

aS

so

and簖era//are

Oil

procedural

and

non?truth—conditional,whichencode

are

proceduralconstraints

truth.conditional.

The

demarcation

implicatures.Personalpronouns

bothproceduraland

held

by

Blal(emore

promotestheoverallunderstanding

of

discoursewhichcertainlyincludesconceptualandproceduralmeaning.Asthestandard

todifferentiatethosetwo

meanings,representation

andencyclopedicknowledgeare

adopted.If

an

expression

carl

berepresentedandenrichtheencyclopedicknowledge,it

1R

willbe

conceptualoFle,if

not,a

to

proceduralone.Thedifferenceisemphasizeit:

all

SO

importantthat

Blakemoreproducedthesewords

Inprinciple,itispossibleforexpressionclassifiedas

discourse

marker【i.e.from

non-RTpointofview】toencodeeither

concept

ora

procedure.Accordingly,itisessentialfor

anystudyoftheseexpressionsconductedwithintherelevancetheoreticprogrammetoinclude

testsfordistinguishingconceptualmeaningfromprocedural

meaning.

(Blakemore,2002:82)

Thislinguisticdemarcationisapparentlyveryimpressing,andthenthequestionishow

to

recognizeit.Blakemoreprovidesthefollowingtestsfor

distinguishing

the

proceduralfromtheconceptual

meaning(2002):it’Sdifficulttoparaphrasewordswhich

forthem;theyalmosthave

beutilizedtighter

tO

encodeproceduralmeaningandfindsynonymy

no

judgments

synonymouscounterpartsinotherwordclasses;they

cannot

form

semanticallycomplexexpressions;andthereis

no

encodingconceptwhich

Can

be

inferentiallydevelopedtoobtain

.Thereclassified

anyexplicatures.Herconclusionisthat.

ofthesemanticsofexpressionswhichhavebeen

cannotbeaunitaryaccount

as

DMs【...].Somerumouttoencodeconcepts,andcanbe

more

treated[...]alongside

as

expressionssuch∞coffee

or,perhaps

accurately.alongsideexpressionssuch

unfortunately[…]Othersanalysis.

turnouttoencodeprocedures,andas

resultresiststraightforward

(Blakemore,2002:88)

Apparently,theclassificationofconceptual

and

procedural

to

meaning

acknowledges

thepragmaticcontributionofDMs,especiallyDCs

intention

indicatethecommunicative

and

otherpragmaticeffects.However,theresearchofDMsmustbebeyond

thescopeofDCs.

2.4.2

MeaningsofDMs

meaning

Now,itisstillcontroversialthatthe

different

sentence

ofDMsispolysemousadoptedin

groups

or

monosemouswith

basic(core)meaning

that

carl

be

contextualized.Asoneimportantgroup,RT-basedscholarshadastrongbeliefthattheyaremonosemous,andtheSO-calleddifferentmeaningsarejustthevariantsofthecore(basic)meaningindifferentcontexts,justlikethis:

Basicmeaning

PrincipleofRelevance

CmlCm2Cm3Cm4CmE

Figure1RelationshipbetweenbasicandcontextualmeaningsinRT(Cm=contextualmeaning).

(Borderia,2008:1419)

Thisfigureclearlyshows.thatthecontextualizedmeaningofDMsis

ismodifiedandenrichedindifferentcontextswhichendowavariantwhichDMswithdifferentmeanings,andtheprincipleofrelevanceistheconstant.

2.5Summary

Owingtothedevotionsofthefoundersandpathbreakers

ononthistopic,theresearchhasdevelopedfromtheside-effectsofDMs

theconcem

onondiscoursecoherenceandpragmatictothecognitiveunderstandingofthemselves,furthermore,theirfunctionsdiscoursesfromtheperspectiveofcognition.AnditiswellrecognizedthatDMsarenotanindependentcategoryoflexicons,becausetheyareovedapped、】 ̄,ith

evenconjunctions,adverbials,interjectionsandclauses.SincethisthesisistolocateDMsinthefield

toofdiscourseinterpretation,theoverlappingissuedoesnotcome

thispaper-However,as

aatheresearchscopeofbasementofthefollowingwriting,itisstillnecessarytohaveauthor,DMsarethoseexpressionsroughdefinitionandclassification.Forthe

20

indicatingthewaytoexpand

functions

classicalatadiscourse,notdescribingitandrevealingthepragmaticnothediscourselevel,usuallygrammaticalconfining.Anditenvelopestheonesandalsoreformulationmarkerssuchas,that西tosay,and

utterancesconjunctionsusedtoindicatethepragmaticmeaningsofthosethattheyconnect.

Afterreadingthegreatbooksandpapersbythosegreatscholars,itisapparentthattheoutstandingrolesofDMsarerelatedtopragmatics,constrainingtheunderstanding

aofdiscourses.Andthelatestdevelopmentofpragmaticshasdonelotindiscovering

DMsincognition,andhasacknowledgedtheproceduralmeaningofDMs,buttheanalysisofDMsisstable.So,toreanalyzeDMsintheperspectiveofdiscourseinterpretationisstillnecessarytoknowthedynamicaspectofDMsandtheireffectsonexpandingdiscourseswhicharecomposedofcoherencerelations.

ChapterThreeTheoreticalFoundation

3.1DiscourseasCommunicationanditsMeaning

AstheauthorhasshowninChaptertwo,alotofscholarshaveshowntheirinterestintheusageofDMs,andalsodifferenttheorieshavebeenadoptedtofindthefeaturesandclassificationsofDMsandtheirspecialroleininputsandoutputsofdiscourse.So,itisverychallenging

totohaveapenetratingviewonthislong—termhottopic.However,thesanlelinguisticphenomenon,usually,therecouldbedifferentanglestobeconsidered,evenwiththesametheory.

With

orthedevelopmentoflinguistictheories,thediscourse,nomatterasamonologueconversation,istreatedcommunication.Thedifferencerelies

oronwhetherthetohearerispostulatedinthemindofspeakerdoesappearinthecommunication

tobeaspontaneousreactor.So,thetheoryusuallyconfinedthecommunicationisalsoavery

efficienttooltobeappliedtoanyformofdiscourses.

Themethodologytheauthorisusingisthecognitiveapproachbasedontherecentlydevelopedpragmaticframework,RTinitiatedbySperber

modifiedin1995andperfectedcontinuouslybythescholarswhoandWilsonarein1986interestedinthistheory.RTisageneraltheoryofcommunicationbasedoncognitiveprinciples.Themotivationofadoptingthistheoryisforitspowertorevealthecognitiveabilityintheprocessofcommunication.Aswhattheauthorhassaid,theproceduralmeaningandconstrainingeffectofDMsareevidentinthefieldofscholarship.But,toillustratetheexactrolesofDMsintheprocessofinterpretingdiscourseisnotclear.AccordingtoRT,utterancesareinputstobepremisesofinferentialprocesseswhichaffectthe

accountcognitiveofenvironmentofthehearer.Inthisofcommunication,theinterpretation

onutterancesisnotmerelyamatteroflinguisticdecodingbutheavilyreliesinference.

SUCCESSAndthiscognition?orientedapproachaboutthepragmaticinference

communicationismuchdifferentfromthe

emphasizestheroleofinference.andtheofclassical/neo-Griceantheory,whichalso

Tohave

an

overfll

analysis

ofdiscourse

commands

manyponderings

over

the

discourseitself.Inthe

greatbookDiscourseAnalysisbyBrownandYule,thewriters

to

range

fromthemicroaspectofreferencethemacroaspectofthe

structure

aidedby

differenttheories.Thelinguistictheorieshavedevelopedinto

mixturewithotherfields

includingpsychology,sociology,especiallythedevelopmentofcognitionsciencebywhichscholarsattemptstodiscovertheconsiderationisthe

core

to

essence

oflanguage.Andthesinglesemantic

issuebutnotadequateenoughtointerpretknowtheof

exact

discourse.

Thisthesisaimsdiscourse

is

roleofDMsininterpreting

which

discourse,and

developed

kind

communication,for

thetheory

for

communicationisadopted.Besides,sincethemain

inthescopeofrelatedfieldsis

concern

ofthisthesisissilllimited

on

linguisticaspects

not

forthespecialtyofDMs,theconsideration

other

included.Concretely,itisthecognitivepragmaticsignificanceof

to

DMsindiscourseinterpretationthatdrawstheattentionoftheauthor..Owing

isnecessary

to

this,it

understandthemodelsof

communication,differentconceptsofmeaning

foundations

tO

andthebasicframeworkofRT,allofwhichwillbetreatedasthe

fulfill

theexpectationsoftheauthor.

3.1.1TwoBasicInterpreting

ModelsofCommunication

human

inthe

Communicationare

worldofbeesareverydifferentways

to

everywhereinOUrdailylife,notonlyintheworldof

beings,butalsointheworldofotherspecies.Asweallknow,thedancingstyles

meaningfuland

provoking.Differentdancing

stylesshow

findtheirdestination,whichisthetraditional

intothe

and

influentialmodelof

communicationtransferred

meaning.In

the

communicationofhuman

beingsbythescholars

whoareinfluencedbysemioticmeaningdescription.Thatistheencoding-decoding

account

ofthismodel,themessagecommunicatedintheexchangeof

or

communicatorsisfirstlyencodedinthespeaker,thenthroughthemediumofverbalnon—verbalbehaviorsrecognizedbythehearerwhodecodesthosebehaviorsgetswhatthespeakerintendstoexpress.Obviously,suchkindofmodelis

23

and

atlast

an

ideal

one,

forweallknowthenaturalcommunicationdoes

not

simplyandtotallyconsistofthe

processofencodinganddecodingsignals.Instead,toexactlymeansisOn

the

nota

know

whatthespeaker

computerizedprocessingwhichis

natural

communication

not

affectedbyanyexternalfactors.definitely

more

complex

SO

contrary,the

isand

on,

cognition-consuming,owingtothedifferent

targets,intentions,contexts,and

to

totallyspeaking,thepragmaticfactors.Andthestrongestoppositionisthatencodingmeaningisonlyimportantis

to

one

knowthethemore

stepofknowing

whatthe

speakersays,and

knowwhatis

implicatedintheviewofGrice(1989).

So,theideaofinferentialmodeliswellacceptedinthefieldoflinguisticresearch.Asfar

as

thismodelisconcerned,to

know

themeaningof

an

utteranceinthenatural

communication

contextsto

demands

theinferentialcapacityincommunicatorswiththeaidof

providetheinferentialpremises

and

thencalculatestheinferentialconclusions.

Themore

correct

understandingofspeakersisnot

is

to

just

to

know

whattheinformationis;themutual

important

knowwhattheintention

is.The

understanding

of

communicators’intention

iStheforemostfactortohavesuccessfulcommunication.

MostDMs,astheauthorhasdescribed,areenriched谢t}lproceduralmeaningswhich

couldbemoreprofoundlyunderstoodinthefieldofinferentialmodelcompared、析mtheencoding—decodingmodel,forDMsdo

not

comprise

anyconceptual

meanings.

pragmatics,

are

And,withthedevelopmentofpragmatics,especiallythecognitive

inferenceismuchbeyondthetraditionallogicalinference.Nowadays,therewell—recognizedwaysconversational

Deductive

to

threeand

doinference:deductiveinference,elaborative

inference

inference(Cummings,2007).inference

isbased

on

formal

logic

and

call

bedividedintoimmediate

andmediateinference,thelatterofwhichismorerelatedtopragmaticinference,which

hasbeen

acknowledged

bySperber

andWilson(1995),for

causescancer

example,

Premise:

Allcigarettesmoking

Conclusion:Allcigarettesmoking

causes

death

Elaborativeinferenceincludestheabilityoflogicandencyclopedicknowledge,whichprovidestheshortageofinputsoflanguageneededasthepremiseoflogicinference,forexample:

WaSwarm.Thepicnicsupplies(8)Maryunpackedthepicnicsuppliesfromthetrunk.Thebeer

containedbeer.

Here,thebridgingofbeer

Thelastoneandpicnicsuppliesistheresultofelaborativeinference.istheconversationalinferenceraisedbyGrice(1989)withthepurposeoffindingtheimplicatedmeaning

toofdailycommunication,whobuiltthecooperativeorprinciplesoffourmaxims

implicatures.beobeyedfloutedtoproducetheconversational

Apparently,thepurposeoftwomodelsis

whatiSthemeaning?toknowthemeaningofspeaker.Then,

3.1.2TwoLayersofMeaningsinDiscourse

asThediscoursetreatedthecommunicationcommandstheinferentialmodelof

ainterpretation.Whateverthemodelisfavored,itisdefinitethattheinterpretationof

discoursecommandsthemeaningconstrualofthat

meaninginvolvesbothdiscourse,andthediscussionofsemanticsandpragmatics.Comparedwiththemeaninginsemantics,themeaninginpragrnaticsismoredynamicindifferentcontexts

intentions.Usually,thepurposeofpragmaticsis

toandconcernedwithcommunicationnottofindtheexplicitmeaningbutthemeaningbehindit.So,itisveryimportant

betweenexplicitandimplicitmeanings,andhowtofindoutknowthedifferencetheimplicitmeanings.

The

byverybeginningofthedifferentiationofmeaning,nandmeaningNisintroducedGrice(1967),in

steptootherwordswhatissaidandwhatisimplicated.Andwhatissaidisthefirstknowwhatisimplicated.Later,owingtotheinterestofdaily

communication,whatissaidisdevelopedintoexplicaturesimplicaturesandwhatisimplicatedandthejobofpragmaticsistofindtheconversationalimplicatures.Now,thelatestdevelopmentofexplicaturesandimplicaturesisfromcognitivepragmatics.In25

Sperberand

Wilson’S

an

view,the

condition

ofexplicitnessis

that

an

assumption

communicatedby

utterance

Uisexplicitifandonlyifitis

developmentofalogical

formencodedbyU.“Thesmallertherelativecontributionofthecontextualfeatures,themoreexplicittheexplicaturewillbe,andIn

inversely"(Sperber&Wilson,1

995:182).

otherwords,theexplicaturesmainlydevelopfromthelanguage

itselfandthe

inferential

implicaturesinvolvetheelementsofthedevelopmentofencodedby

an

one

context.So,“anr-explicature㈤isan

representation

on

or

oftheincompleteconceptual

Yah,2007:1

logicalformsview,nowthe

utterance”(Huang89).Basedand

this

r-explicaturesinvolve

are

dividedintobasicr-explicatures

higher?levelr-explicatureswhich

higher-Ievejdescription,thedescriptionsofpropositionalattitude,speechact

andothercomments.Asan

illustration,considerthisexampletakenfromHuangYah

(2007:194):

(9)Evidently,FredericktheGreatentertainedVoltaire

atSanssouci.

a_itisevidentthatFredericktheGreatentertainedVoltaireatSanssouci.

b.ThespeakerstronglybelievesthatFredericktheGreatentertainedVoltaireatSanssouci.

Here,both口andb

are

thehigherexplicaturesof(9).

are

Asthecounterparttoexplicatures,implicaturespragmatics.Sincethere

ale

another

importantitemfor

twoways

to

discoverexplicaures,decoding

andinference,

to

nowitiswellacknowledgedthatinferenceistheonly

demandedtooldiscover

r-implicaurtes,whichinRTarecalculatedthroughimplicatedpremisesconclusions,includingthestrong

and

implicated

and

weakr-implicaturesrespectively.Thefollowing

to

exampletaken

r-implicatures:

formHuangYan(2007)isshowtheinferentialprocessofunveiling

(10)Carsalesman:Areyouinterestedintest-driving

RollsRoyce?

expensive

car.

John:I'mafraidI'mnotinterestedintest—drivingPremise:

ARollsRoyceis

an

any

expensive

car.

@R—implicaturesrefertotheimplicautresinRTbyHuangYan

26

Conclusion:Johnisnotinterestedintest-drivingaRollsRoyce.The

utterancesanalysisdemandsofthisadialogueclearlyshowsthattoknowr-implicaturesofcomparativelycompleteinferentialprocessincludingpremisesandconclusions.

Then,whatisthedifferencebetweenthestrongandweakr-implicatures?Indailycommunication,thehearersareapttoinferwhatthespeakersintendtomeanwhentheysaysomethingtothem.Sometimes,theinferenceiSconsistent、Vitllthesometimesoverintention,andevaluationwillhappen.Technically,strongr-implicaturesarethose

tor-implicatuerswhoserecoveryisessential

Byunderstandthespeaker’Sintendedr-implicatuersmeaning.isnotcontrast,“weak

tor-implicaturesthearethosewhoserecoveryessential

beoneunderstandspeaker’Sintendedmeaning,becausether-implicauresmayofawidearrayofequallypossibler-implicaturesengenderedbyanutterance’’

Wilsonand(HuangYah,2007:196).Now,considerthefollowingexampletakenfrom

Sperber(2004).

(11)Peter:DidJohnpaybackthemoneyheowedyou?

Mary:No.heforgottogo

色tothebank.JohnwasunabletOrepayMarythemoneyheOWeSbecauseheforgottogotothe

financialinstitution.

JohnmayrepayMarythemoneyheoweswhenhenextgotothefinancialinstitution.

Mary’Sreplymaygiverise

strongestonetOmanyimplicatures,andevenclearly,theillustration口isthenottobeinferred,andbthefollowingC…arestrongenoughtobetheconvincing,maybepossibleimplicatures.

Definitely,theexistenceanddifferentchoicesofDMsmakeanimpactonthemeaning

DMs

theonconstrual,bothonexplicaturesandimplicatures.Inaddition,theimpactoftOdiscourseinterpretationannouncesthenecessityknowthewholeprocessofcommunicationinRT,whichaims

totoworkouttheentireprocessintermsofacognition.AndDMsareassumedplaygreatroleatthecriticalmomentofthe27

process.

3.2TheCommunicationintheScopeofCognition

Actually,theprincipleofrelevancehasbeenmentionedinthemaximsofGrice,buthetreatsitasoneconstituent.DuetotheeffortsofSperberand

overWilson,thisprincipleisupgradedtothesingledoctrinerulingthehumancommunication.In

dailycommunication,usually,boththeaddressor

toproduceaandaddresseeexpectthecounterpartrelevantinputguaranteedbythecognitionandcommunicationtendencyofhumanbeings.

(1)HumancognitiontendstObegeared

(2)Everytothemaximizationofrelevanceactofostensivecommunicationcommunicatesapresumptionofitsown

optimalrelevance

(Sperber&Wilson,1995:260)

Thefirstprincipleshowsthatitistheintuitionof

acceptthemostrelevantinformation.Inother

tendtohumanbeingstoproduceandwords,humanbeingspsychologicallypickoutthemostrelevantinformationfromthepoolofstimulus.Themoment

awefindthe

feedbackrelevantstimulus,theprocessofinferencestopsandthetimetogiveforthesecondprinciple,theostensiveinformations

tobegins.Asfromcommunicatorspresupposethatitistheoptimal

SUCCESSrelevantpickedoutpromisetheofthisturnofcommunication,whichisensuredbythepresumptionofoptimalrelevanceasfollowing.

Theostensivestimulusisrelevantenoughforittobeworththeaddressee’Sefforttoprocessit.

Theostensivestimulusisthemostrelevantonecompatiblewiththecommunicator’Sabilitiesandpreferences.

(Sperber&Wilson,i995:270)

Actually,theconditionsshow

beforethebeginningoftheturnUSthecognitivepreparationofcommunicatorsofcommunication.The

2Rcommunicatorshouldmake

sure

theutteranceheplanned

to

produceisvaluable

to

catchtheattentionand

worth

computingbytheaddresseewiththeguidanceofcontextual

factors.Meanwhile.the

utterance

isthebestchoiceforthecommunicator,nothiding,notoverblowing.Onlyin

thisway,couldthebalanceofprocessingeffortsandcontextualeffectsbeachieved.

Every

utterance

ofthe

communication

assumestobethemostrelevant

one

principledbythetendencyandpresumption.However,thosewould

be

assumedrelevant

ensure

stimulus

adjustified

in

theprocessofthefactors

ofcommunicationto

to

thesuccessful

are

communication.As

one

promotethe

essence

adjustification,contexts

anotherimportantfactorinRT,fort11eyrevealtheofthistheory

ofcognition—orientedaspect

and

havebeen

crucialtopicofpragmatics.Generallyspeaking,thereare

twocontrastiveideastocontexts,staticit

and

dynamiccontexts.Asforthestatic

context,

means

theelementsof

contextare

pre—conditionedwithoutanychangefromthevery

beginningto

theendingofcommunicmion.Onthecontrary,theelementsofthe

arerebuilt、析ththeflowingofthe

at

dynamic

on

context

communicationand

moment.Inthe

have

an

effect

theunderstandingofthecommunication

is

aset

any

account

ofRT,the

context

put

assumptions.Whencommunicating,thespeakersandhearersalways

someassumptionsintheirmindbeforethebeginningofcommunication,whichCan

of

as

beselectedAsforRT,

thecontextof

communicationandberebuiltthroughthecommunication.

subsetofthehearer’Sassumptionofthe

Acontextis

psychologicalconstruct,a

sense

world....Acontextinthisenvironment

or

isnotlimitedtoinformationabouttheimmediatephysical

theimmediatelyprecedingutterance.

(Sperber&Wilson,1995:15)

TheexpressionclearlyshowsthatthecontextinRTisphysicalenvironmentoutsidethecomprehendthe

nota

simpleassemblyoftheutilizedbyhearersto

communication.The

context

communicationcouldcomefromtheexplicitandimplicitmeaningsof

utterance,encyclopedicknowledge,culture,memory,and

theprecedingandfollowing

SO

on.Cognitivelyspeaking,thecontextis

cognitiveenvironment,a

set

offactsthat

:!Q

are

manifest

to

thecommunicator,and‘‘afactiSmanifestto

at

all

individual

ata

given

timeifandonlyifheiscapablerepresentation

as

thattimeofrepresentingitmentallyandacceptingits

true

or

probably

true”(Sperber&Wilson,1995:39).In

otherwords,exclusively

thefactshouldproducecontextualeffects.Ofcourse,thosefactsdoconsistoflinguisticgoes

to

not

items,and

someothernon-verbalsignals

an

are

alsoqualified.Ifit

an

utterance,a

speakerwhointends

utterance

to

beinterpretedin

particular

to

waymustalsoexpectthehearertosupplybebe

acontext

whichallowsthatinterpretation

recovered(Sperber&Wilson,1995).In

all

thissense,DMsshouldbeveryimportantto

to

indicatortotellwhatthecontextiSandhow

ON

manipulateandbuildthe

context.

Based

theprecedingdiscussion,alinguisticformmustproducestimuliwhich

arecomposedofassumptionsostensiveinostensivestimuluscouldbeassumptionis

context,butitisstilldoubtfulhowthe

relevantone.ForSperber

andWilson,therelevance

of

an

comparativeconcept,thedegreeofwhichisdynamicaffectedbytwo

factors:processingefforts

andcontextual

effects.

Extentcondition1:锄assumptionisrelevantineffectsinthiscontext

are

contexttotheextentthatitscontextual

large.

acontext

Extentcondition2:allassumptionisrelevantinrequiredtoprocessitinthiscontextissmall.

totheextentthattheeffort

Forthe一Jhe

sake

valueot

relevance=~

ofbrevity,we

(Sperber&Wilson,1995:125)

can

usea

mathematical

formatto

showit:

ContextualEffects

Thethemorethe

format

tells

US

thatotherthingsbeingequal,themorecontextualeffectsare,

relevant

theassumptionis,andthelessprocessingefforts,themore

relevant

assumption

is.Theoptimalrelevance

Can

besimplyexpressed弱thegreatest

to

cognitiveeffectsforminimalprocessingefforts.And,inorder

producecertainkindof

contextualeffects,theassumptionsinputintothemindofhearershouldhavedefiniterelationstotheestablished

assumptions.Usually

30

therearethree

ways:(1)generating

new

set

ofassumptionswiththecombinationofnewandoldassumptions,butdifferent

all

frombothofthem;(2)strengthening

existing

assumption;(3)opposite

are

to

theexisting

assumption

andreplaceit.However,contextualeffects

not

thesinglefactoraffecting

thedegreeofrelevance.Sincethecontext,thecognitiveenvironment,inRTdemandsthementalprocessingoftheinputofassumptionsandtheeffortsofthehearers.So,theinputwithoutcausing

any

contextualeffectsonlycostingprocessingeffortsisruledout

ofthefieldofrelevance.

Thenthelast.questioniswhatthecommunicationisaccording

to

RT.Sperberand

Wilson(1995)strongly

shouldworktogether

to

holdthatencoding-decodingmodelandinferentialmodelwork

out

thecompletemeaningof

all

utterance,and

iS

make

assurance

ofthesuccessful

communication.The

communication

on

an

ostensive.inferentialstimulusof

one.The

achievementofcommunicationrelies

theostensive

showing

speakers’intention,andthesuccessful

recurrence

oftheintention

tO

forthehearers.So,theostentionofthepickedup:

speakers

providestWOlayersofintention

be

Informativeintention:tomakemanifestassumptionsI.

or

moremanifest

totheaudience

asetof

(Sperber&Wilson,1995:58)

Communicativeintention:tomakeitmutuallymanifesttoaudienceandcommunicatorthatthecommunicatorhasthisinformativeintention.

(Sperber&Wilson,1995:61)

Theinformative

changethethe

intentionis

to

provideassumptionswhicharemanifest

even

and

then

assumptions

to

ofaudiencebyadding,contrasting

is

to

replacing.However,

communicative

do

intention

SO

letthe

audiencerealizetheintentionof

communicatorsandinferwhattheimpliedmeaningbehindtheexplicithints.

to

Paraphrasing,theinformativeintentionisthe

showtheexplicitandsuperficial

the

informative

input,and

communicative

intentionis

to

manifest

intention.So,the

ostensive.inferentialcommunicationiSputinthisway:

3l

Ostensive-inferentialcommunication:the

communicator

produces

stimuluswhich

makesitmutuallymanifesttocommunicatorandaudiencethatthecommunicatorintends,by

meansofthisstimulus,tomakemanifest

I.

or

moremanifesttotheaudience

aset

ofassumptions

(Sperber&Wilson,1995:63)

Asthisdefinitionstands,theshows

the

intention

and

to

job

ofcommunicatorsis

in

order

to

to

provide

the

stimulus,which

ofof

provide

thisactivate

assumptions

communicators

audiences.Afterreceivingtheostensivestimulus,the

on

job

audienceistoinferthemeaningofthestimulusbasedaffectedbythestimulus.So,wemay

the

changedassumptions

ale

say

thatostentionandinference

cail

thetwosides

sure

ofthecommunicationcoin,eachofwhichflowingofcommunication.

not

beerasedinordertomakeofthe

3.3TheComprehensionProcedureintheFrameofRT

Generallyspeaking,asshownabove,thecomprehensionprocedureofRTincludesdecodingandinferencetypes.Andfortheaddressee,heshouldknowtheinformativeintentionandcommunicativeintention

and

bealert

to

theoptimalrelevantinputs

absorbedintothecognitiveenvironmenttoproducepositivecognitiveeffects,afterthatobey

the

presumptions

of

relevance

to

do

feedback.Then,another

turn

of

communicationhappensinthesameway.

Roughly,therewhich

ale

ale

threesub—tasksthataleinvolvedinthecomprehensionprocess,to

get

the

exact

important

meaning

of

inputs

andintentionsof

communicators.

Constructing

an

appropriatehypothesisaboutexplicitcontent(explicature)viadecoding,

disambiguation,referenceresolution,andotherpragmaticenrichmentprocesses.

b)Constructing

an

appropriatehypothesis

abouttheintendedcontextual

assumption(implicatedpremise)c)Constructing

anappropriatehypothesisabouttheintendedcontextual

32

implications

(implicatedconclusion)

(HuangYah,2007:196)

Theabovethreestepsclearlydemonstratethatitis

theanorderedprocesstodigouthigher-levelexplicaturesimplicatures.Thefirststepistoknowthebasicand

involvingthedecodingandinference.Theprocessofworkingouttheimplicatedpremiseisinlinewiththeimmediatecognitiveenvironment.Theimplicatedconclusionisdevelopedthroughtheinferentialprocessbasedontheformertwosteps.

3.4TheHypothesisof

BasedonDMsinDiscourseInterpretationawhattheauthorhasdiscussed,DMscertainlywouldbeprocedural

ameaningcontributingtothewholeprocessofcommunication,whichcouldnotbe

completeonewithouttheadjustmentofproceduraltokens.Suchkindofproceduraltokenscouldnotenrichtheencyclopedicknowledge

world,butthey

cognitionareandrepresentationofphysicalveryimportanttoproduceatextinvolvingthefactorsofhumanandsocialfactors.Besides,definiteDMsdomakecontributionstothelevelofexplicatures.So,thehypothesisisthatDMsarethecandidatesinvolvedinthethreesteps,andtheweightsofthemaredifferentindifferentperiodsfordifferentDMs.

Ifwecomparetheinterpretationofdiscoursetothemathematicalalgorithm,thepropositionalmeaningofsentencesisthenumbers,whicharepotentiallylinkedtoeachotherindifferentwaysthatproducedifferentresults.Suchkindof

thepossiblecoherencerelationsof

computationallinkageisjustlikesentences.ThenthemajorityofDMsarethecertainlythesignalstoshowhowthecomputationshould

differentresultsbe,anddifferentchoicesofDMswinandmustcauseeventheformulahasthe

samenumber.Inotherwords,tointerpret

wayadiscourseinthescopeofRTistofindtheDMshaveaneffectontheprocessofmeaningconstrualofthediscourseascommunication,andtheeffectalsocouldbetreatedasthemotivationoftheexistenceofDMs.ThisisthetopictobedevelopedinChapterfour.33

ChapterFour

TheFunctionsand

Motivation

of

DMs

4.1

DMsandMeaningConstrual

AstheauthorhasdiscussedinChapterthree,withthedevelopmentofcognitive

pragmatics,thetraditionaldecodingintoexplicaturesandinferenceintoimplicatureshasbeenbrokenupintotheunderstandingofbothdecodingexplicatures

and

inferenceinvolvedinto

discourse

and

only

inferenceinto

implicautures.So,DMs,even

connectiveswhichonlyaffecttheproceduraldevelopmentwill

be

without

conceptuMmeaningexplicatures

and

factor

within

theconsideration

ofproducing

both

implicatures.

4.1.1

DMsandExplicatures

exact

Usually,thelinguisticformisincompleteforexpressingtheworld(Xumeaning

Shenghuan,2006),and

of

thereexists

gappingbetweenwhatthepropositional

anutteranceand

theintentionofthespeakeruneringtheutterance.However,the

not

existenceofgappingdoes

mean

theincompetenceof

languageand

language

users,

primarilybecauseoftheunnecessaryenoughpragmaticfactorscontributing

OUt

redundancy

to

offullexpressionsincethere

carl

are

it.Eveninthiscase,theheareralso

meaning

work

thefull

explicatures

based

on

propositional

andinference.Inan

appropriatecontext,12a

Can

expressthepropositionin12b

(12)a.Thekidiscrying.

(121b.ThekidXiscryingYforZBased

state

on

thedecodingprocessandinference,thehearerknowswhothekidis,the

ofcrying

and

the

reason

whythiskidiscrying.Thisisthecasetoshowitisvery

our

natural

torecover

thecompleteexplicitmeaningin

out

dailycommunication.But,apart

higherabilityof

fromthis,tofigurethehigher-levelexplicatures

usuallydemands

inferencebyhearers.Inthefollowingexample,theanswerfromMaryatleasthasfourkindsof

explicatures(Carston,2000).

34

(13)8-Bill:Didyour

son

visityouattheweekend?

b.Mary(happily):Hedid.(14)a.Mary’S

SOil

visitedher

SOIl

at

theweekend.

at

b.Marysaysthather

visitedhertheweekend.

c.Marybelievesthathersonvisitedherattheweekend.d.Maryishappythathersonvisitedherattheweekend.Apparently,oneoftheanswersfromMarycouldbeconstrainedbythe

context

salient

one

chosenbyBill

utterances

andexpectationofhim.Now,ifwechangethe

of

Maryintothefollowingform,theexplicatureswillbe

05)a..Bill:Didyour

son

littledifferent.

visityouattheweekend?

b.Mary:Youknow,hedid.Compared、衍t11expressionexplicatures

sentence

13.sentence15replacesnon?verbalfacial

gotthe.DMyou

or

intonation

the

withyouknow.Afterweknow,wecoulddeny

of口andand

bof14.because“youknowismarkerofmeta?knowledgeabout

to

whatspeaker

hearer

share”(Schiffrin,2006:268).Duethemeat—knowledge,you

knowdoesnotexpresstheknowledgebuttheattitude.So,the

existenceofyou

information

beyondit,thepropositional

know

excludesthe

basicexplicaturesOfsimple

to

affirmation

higher

oftheyes—noquestionandprovides

explicaures.Just

as

propositionalattitude

revealthe

could

level

Rouchota(1998:121)pointedout“DMs

contributeto

context

utterance

interpretationbyencoding

information

aboutsomeaspectof

inwhichthespeakerintendsher

not

utterance

tobeinterpreted”.Inotherwords,

DMsare

information—oriented

butcontext—orientedlinguisticforms.

Thereisanotherexamplethatcouldbe

stronger

oneto

showthespecificroleof

DMsinworking

(16)A:1do

out

theexplicatures.

you,but…

wanttohelp

see.

B:Ok,Isee。I

Inthisconversation

turn,speaker

even

doesnotfinishhisspeakingwhenB

out

burstsintohisfeedback.Obviously,everyreaderincludingBcouldpredict

35

whatA

willsaycontinuously.Andthecomplete

sentence

couldberecoveredinthisway.

Idowanttohelpyou,buttheshortageofXpreventsmedoingit.

Certainly,theexistenceofbutdoes

not

denythemeaningofhelp,eventhoughthe

semanticmeaningofbutiscontrast.0nthecontrary,theoverwhelmingfunctionsofbut

ispragmatic,speaker-returnaccording

to

Schiffrin.Itis

justthispragmaticmeaningthat

not

providesthemotivationofthefeedbackof

speaker

B.Inpointoffact,hedoes

understandwhatthespeakerAwillsay,butwhattheattitudeofhim.

So,asthebasisofworking

outthe

completemeaningof

discourse,thefunctions

ofDMsintheperspercitveofexplicaturesmainlyusherinthehigher-levelaspect,notthebasicwill

save

level.And

intheviewofRT,theexistenceofDMsinOurdailycommunication

to

theprocessingeffortsofhearersandhelpthem

findthe

exact

higher-level

explicitmeaningsofspeakers.

4.1.2

DMs

andImplicatures

Wilson

claim

that

and

Sperber(2004)pointed

OUt

theessaysfromGriceadvocatehuman

on

central

and

to

an

essentialfeatureofmost

communication,bothverbal

non-verbal,istheexpressionandrecognitionofintention.Tomanifesttheintentionsbothsidesofcommunicationisthe

critical

step

to

make

surea

successfuland

continuouscommunication.Asforverbalcommunication,besidestheexplicitofsentence,implicaturesare

meaning

and

another

importantconceptinthefieldofpragmatics

communication.The

meaning,then

which

are

waytoknowimplicauresdemandsthreestepsoftheexplicit

theimplicatedpremise

and

theimplicatedconclusion,thelattertwoof

implicaturesinthetraditional

pragmatictheory.

all

InthefieldofRT,thethe

exact

utterancetreatedas

input

to

stimulatehearers

to

find

out

meaning

inandbehindtheutterance、^ritllthehelpofcontexts.Asthemost

importanttypeoffromtheinput

cognitive

effects,thecontextimplicationis

conclusiondeducible

nor

and

thecontexttogether,butneitherfromthesingleinput

out

fromthe

singlecontext.So,toworktheimplicaturesdemandsmoreinformationfromthe

cognitiveenvironment,amixtureoftheinputandtheexistingcontextbeforethecommunication.

DMs,especiallydiscourseconnectives,forexample,but,and,or,afterall,havebeenintensivelystudiedastheproceduralmeaningtotellhearersthedifferentimplicatureswiththesamepropositionslinkedbydifferentconnectives.Now,wehavealookatthisexampleadoptedfromRochota(1996).

(17)HevotesTorybutItrusthim.

Theacceptableimpliedconclusionofthissentenceshouldbe“IdonottrustthepersonwhovotesTory”.Andanormalinferentialprocesspredictedformthissentenceshouldbelikethis:

PremiseIdonottrustthepersonwhovotesTo拶

H£∑Q±坌墨!垒!墨

ConclusionIdonottrusthim.

HoweveLtheDMbutchangesthegeneralprediction.IntheaccountofRT,theestablishedsetofassumptionsthatthepersonwhovotesToryisnotworthtrustingbyIischangedintotheoppositedirection.

Now,ifweseparateitintotwopartsasfollowing:

(18)HevotesTory。

(19)Itrusthim.

Whatistherelationbetweenthemandisthereanydifference?Certainly,therecouldbemanylinguisticformsavailabletolinkthem.Possibly,severalDMsCanbeusedtolinkthembesidesbut,forexample,

(20)HevotesTory.SoItrusthim.

(21)HevotesToⅨalthoughItrusthim.

(22)HevotesTorybecause1trusthim.

Ofcourse,theseexamplesdonotexhaustthepossibleDMsthatcarlbeutilizedtolinkthem,butthosethreesentencesdoshowUSthattherecouldbeacceptabledifferentrelationsandgrammaticalsentenceswithdifferentDMseventhepropositionstheylink37

are

same.And,differentimplicatures

are

producedowing

tO

thedifferentchoicesof

DMs.

Sentence20implicatesthatthepersonwho

votestrust

Toryisworthtrusting.should

notvote

Sentence21implicatesthatthepersonwhoI

T0巧.

To巧isthatI

Sentence22implicatesthatthepre-conditionthattheperson

trusthim.

votes

Thosepossible

sentences

andexplanationsshow

us

thatthedifferentDMsused

to

linkthesamepropositionalmeaningwillproducedifferentexpectationsforhearersof

thepre?existedassumptionsandtheintentionsofspeakers.Asforthoseimplicatureslistedabove,thoseDMs

and

thepropositionstheylinkarefactorscontributing

not

to

the

implicatures.Obviously,thesimpleillustrationis

satisfying

to

solvethecomplex

issue,andthatisthemotivationofthefollowingwriting,whichincludestheeffectsof

DMsinthecognitiveinferentialprocessoftheinternalmind.

4。2TheFunctionsof

DMs

intheOstensive.inferentialProcess

TheresearchofDMsinthescopeofRThasmadeprocedural

distinctivecontribution

to

the

meaningand

thespecificeffect

on

the

context

byDCs.Asitwasshownin

Chapterthree,theconceptofrelevanceis

comparativeitemdecidedbythecontextual

effectsandtheprocessingefforts.And,theproceduralmeaningsofmostDMswhich

cail

not

berepresentedinthemindof

as

human

beingsprovethemotivationofDMs.

no

HoweveL

theauthorhaspointedout,althoughthereis

the

representationalfunctionof

DMs,whichdowngrades

computation

does

reveal

significance

oftheirvalueassingleunits,thefunctionof

ofthem

iftlley

are

related

to

the

significance

other

representationallinguisticunits,especiallyintheprocessofinterpretation.

Itgoeswithoutdenyingthat

to

workouttherelationbetween

speciallinguistic

phenomenonandrelevance,boththecontextual

effectsandtheprocessingefforts

shouldbetakenintoconsideration.Toachievetheoptimalisto

use

relevance,the

idealsituation

thesmallestprocessing

effortstoproducethelargestcontextualeffects.

3R

However,since

the

biologicallyprocessing

efforts

are

are

very

as

difficulttobe

experimentallycalculated,thecontextualeffectspoint

to

alwaystreated

thebreakthrough

estimatethedegreeofrelevanceaccompaniedwiththeevaluationofprocessing

efforts.

4.2.1

DMsandContextuaiEffects

on

Sinceinthisparttherewillbethediscussionisnecessarytomentiontheidea

context

DMsandthecontextualeffects,it

again,andgive

moredetailedanalysis.

context

InChapterthree,theauthornarratedthedefinitionof

bySperberand

Wilson

inthescopeofcognitionunderstanding.Briefly,contexts

as

are

subsetofthe

hearer’Sassumptionsabouttheworld.And

forassumptions,theyarethoughtstreated

bythe

we

individual

say

as

representationsoftheactual

is

world(Sperber&Wilson,1995).So,

thoughtstreatedbyhim

to

as

carl

the

context

subsetofthe

on

hearer’S

representationsoftheactualworld.Based

thisdefinition,according

Sperberand

Wilson,DMs

have

no

identity

tOenter

intothecontextoftheindividual

no

use

as

DMshave

no

representationfunctionbutcomputationfunction.So,itisdegreeofrelevanceofDMs,butveryvaluablehaveeffects

on

talkingaboutthe

can

totest

whethertheexistenceofDMs

therelevantinputs,thesetofassumptions.

an

Naturally,iffollowingsomething

utterance

linkedbyDMs,especiallyDCs,has

no

precedingand

utterances,the

to

hearerwill

think

itis

incompleteandnaturallyexpect

linkthisutterance,forexample,

toworklateshifttoday.

(23)Mary:ButyouhadAsforthisrelationbetweenifthereisdemands

no

sentence,a

hearerwhohas

no

backgroundinformationaboutthe

Mary

andyou,especiallytheworkingconditionofyouwillbepuzzled

to

addinginformation

bepresented.So,butdoes

notcreatea

context,but

utterance.

context,whichsuppliestheevidenceoftheacceptanceofthe

onecase

Therewillbe

illustratedbyRouchotaasfollowing:

at

(24)(context:Petercomesbackhomefromwork

39

3.00)

Mary:Butyouhadtoworklateshifttoday.

(Rouchota,1996:205)

InChaptertwo,theauthorhasmentionedtheconstrainingroleofDCs

inthe

processofinterpretationtoallowthederivationofstrengthen

all

contextualimplicationlikeSO,tocontradict

utterance

all

existing

to

assumption,扣rthermore,to

specify

the

role

of

the

existingassumptionthe

discourse

by

nevertheless,and

in

Blakemore(1992).However,besides

on

DCs,thereareotherDMswhichhavetheeffects

contexts.Considerthefollowingexample.(25)Carrie:Charles,I'dlikeforyouto

meetHamish,myfiancee.

Charles:Excellent.Excellent.Howdoyoudo,Hamish.Delightedtomeetyou.Charming

surprisetofindCarriebackinthecountry.

Hamish:Yes,well,took

lotofpersuading,I

can

tellyou.

(Cuenc42008:1380originalemphasis)

Inthisconversation,thecountrymeansBritain.ItisobviousthatCharlesisverydelightedtomeetHamish

and

surprised

to

findCharlescameback

t.o

hismotherland.

Herethecombinationofyeswellmeansthepartialagreement

and

partialcontradiction.

SO,

InCuenca’Sopinion,thiscombinationofyeswellreplacedthecombinationofyes

and

the

appearanceofwellevidentially

illustratesthe

following

to

sentence

which

to

contradictstheexpectationofCharles(i.e.Carrieisalsodelighted

comebackhis

motherland).

So,itisapparentthattheeffectsofmostDMs⑤on

content

contextsatenot

lik.eother

beings,

set.

words

or

propositionswhich

are

Call

berepresentedinthemindof

human

and

becauseofthis,theireffects

toconstrainilew

all

assumptionsaddedintothe

Thosenewexisting

assumptionsassumptionsand

may

s仃engthen

existing

assumption

or

contradictthe

replacethemastheauthorhasintroducedinChapterthree

fromwhattheauthorhasdiscussed,DMs

accordingtoSperber

andWilson.Different

forthedifferentunderstandingofDMsandtheirsubtypes.therearedifferentideasofwhethersomeDMshave

marker

conceptualmeaning.CommentaD.7markerssuchaShonesfyaccordingtoSperberandWilson,reformulationsuchasthatistOsayaccordingtOBlakemoreusuallyhaveconceptualmeaning.

40

囝As

callnot

producethedirectcontextualeffects.On也econtrary.itistheindirecteffects

thatacknowledgethevalueofDMsinvariouslinguisticunits.Theindirectroleofthemis

nottopresent

hearerswhatthenewpresentationis,butwhatthenewpresentationwill

core

be.The

fromthe

indicatingfunctionispartlyfromthe

meaningofDMs,andalsopartly

knowledge

ofthecommunicatorsaboutthebackgroundandthe

can

immediate

context.With

thecoeffectsofpropositionsandDMs,thehearer

havewhole

representationoftheexternalworld,thevariousrelationsamongdifferentpropositions,

even

theattitudeandintentionsofthoseexpressedInconclusion.thecontextualeffectsof

utterances.

notto

DMs

tell

are

contradict,strengthen…

must

be

the

assumptiOIlSbut

tobe

an

indicator

to

hearers

thatthere

new

assumptionswhichwouldcontradict,strengthen...theassumptions.

4.2.2

DMS

andOstension

Throughthediscussionintheprecedingpart,theindicatingfunctionofDMshasbeenaffirmed.But,astheauthorhasdiscussedinChapterthree,thecommunicationaccordingspeakerisbv

the

to

thetheoryofgive

relevanceand

is

an

ostensive-inferential

out

process.Thejob

of

to

an

ostensionheareristowork

theintentionthroughinferencecontextual

effects

ofcertain

mutualmanifestationofstimulus.So,the

inthis

assumptionsshouldbemanifest,andtheappearanceofDMsmusttaketheirrolesperiod.

OstensioniSalsocalledostensivebehaviorswhich

make

all

intention

manifest.

Usually,itprovidestwolayersofinformations,theinformationwhichhasbeenpointed

OUt

and

the

informationthatthefirstlayerofinformationhasbeenintentionallypointed

out.In

otherwords,asspeaker,the

ostensivebehaviorsshould

to

consistofthe

mutual.manilest

information

andhisintention

showthe

information.

to

Indailycommunication,theinformative

intention

speaker

shouldobeytheruleofostension

intention.If

showhiswill

be

and

communicative

not,there

toexpress

misunderstandings.So,inordertomakethemeaninghewants

41

exactly,the

speakeralwaysusescertainlinguisticexpressionstoachievethisgoal.InthefieldofDMs,reformulationmarkersareonebestchoice.

(26)Thepatientisstillalive;thesurgeonshaveretiredwhileanxiousrelativeshoveratthebedside./notherwords,thepoundhassurvivedanotherdaywithoutintervention.

(Blakemore,1996:328)

(27)Therepublicans,thatis,thethirdpartyinthecentre-leftcoalition,disagreedwiththelegislation.

(Blakemore,1996:329)

Here,inotherwordsisareformulationmarkerwhichreformulatesahigherlevelexplicature,andthereformulationafterreformulationmarkersistherepresentationofutteranceswhichtheyresemble.Thisresemblanceinvolvesthesharingoflogicalandcontextualimplications,theutterancecallbesaidtoberelevantaSarepresentationofathought.Formallyspeaking,

ThespeakerbelievesthatPisafaithfulrepresentationofathoughtQ

(Blakemore,1996:340)

IfweretulTltoexample(27),thereformulationmarkerthatisiscommunicatingabasicexplicature:

ThetermtheRepublicansiscoreferentialwiththetermthethirdpartyincentral-leftcoalition.

(Biakemore,1996:341)

So,aSonechoiceofspeakerstomakehistwolayersofinformationostensive,ifnotallDMs,atleaStreformulationmarkersalewell—developedtobeappliedtohelpthemtoshowtheirexactinforillativeintentionasthebasisofcommunicativeintentionandprovideenoughevidencestoinducehearerstomakeacorrectselectionofassumptionsandcontextualimplicationswithinference.

4.2.3DMsandInference

Accordingtotheprincipleofostensive—inferentialcommunicationinRT,differentfromostensivebehaviorwhichisthedutyofspeaker,inferenceisthedutyofhearerto42

catchtheoptimalrelevantinputsandworkouttheimplicaturesbasedontheinputsandhisownstoredconceptualrepresentations.Generallyspeaking,“inferenceistheprocessbywhich

orallassumptionisacceptedastrueorprobablytrueonthestrengthofthetruthotherwords,probabletruthofotherassumptions”(Sperber&Wilson,1995:68).Ininferenceshouldmakesureofthetruthvalueofconclusionsfromthetruthvalueofpremises.Theinferenceofcomprehension,intheopinionofSperberandWilson,isaspontaneousnon-demonstrativeinferencewiththeaidofcertaindeductiveruleswhich“playacrucialroleinnon-demonstrativeinference”(Sperber&Wilson,1995:69).And

twosteps:hypothesis

constructsalltoreachvalidnon.demonstrativeconclusionsusuallyconsistsofformationandhypothesisconfirmation,whichmeansthatthehearerfirstly

assumptionrepresentedbythespeaker’Sostensivebehavior,andthenconfirmtheassumption.Duringthisprocess,thethreestepsofknowingexplicaures,implicated

arepremisesandimplicatedconclusions

Intheirbook,Sperberandcompletelyinvolved.acceptedtheideaofWilsonFodor(1983)aboutthemechanismofmind,whichconsistsoftwotypes:inputsystemsandcentralsystems.

oneTheformerisinchargeofprocessingthe

memoryandperceptualinformationandthelatteroneintegratesinformation,formsperformsinferentialtasks.Asfordiscourse

interpretation,thekeyresearchpointisthelanguageinputsunderstandingtheinputs.

Inordertoandinferentialprocessoftotallyunderstandtheinputs,aStheauthorhassuggested,thebaseistheexplicatureoftheinputs,usuallystoredintoanincompletelogicalform.And,“Theincompletelogicalformsplay

1allimportantroleincognition”(Sperber&Wilson,sentence995:73).Basically,thelinguisticinputsystemdecodestheintoitslogicalformwhichthehearercompletesitintothefullypropositionalcomplete

systemsform,asemanticallycentralandtruth—valuablelogicform.Interactedwithit,thememoryintruestoresthefactualassumptionswhichareentertainedasdescriptionoftheworldbutnotexplicitlyrepresentedwithvariousstrengths.So,theultimatepurposeof

describedascommunicationisfollowing.43

Each

newlyacquired

tO

factual

assumption

iscombined

aim

istO

with

stockand

ofexistingimprovethe

assumptions

undergoinference

processwhose

modify

individual’Soverallrepresentationoftheworld.

(Sperber&Wilson.1995:75)

Ifitgoestotheinterpretationofutteranceswhichformassumptionsinthemindofthehearer,thewholeanddetailedworkingmechanismsshouldbeinthisway.Thepropositionalformsofassumptions

are

composedofconceptstowhichthedeductive

rulesaresensitive.Eachconceptconsistsofcertainconceptappearsinstored

in

memory

at

label,or

address.Whenthe

addressof

logicalformbeingprocessed,varioustypesofinformation

are

thataddress

accessed(Sperber&Wilson,1995).Theand

lexicalentries.

tonsilsofin

set

informationincludeslogical,encyclopedic

Theinformationin

encyclopedicentriesisrepresentational:it

of

assumptionswhichmayundergodeductiverules.Theinformation

logicalentries,by

contrast,iscomputational:itconsistsofa

whichtheassociatedconceptappears.

set

ofdeductiveruleswhichapplytoassumptionsin

(Sperber&Wilson,1995:75)

Besides,thelexicalentriesthe

content

are

representationswithlinguisticforms.So,‘‘recoveryof

of

anutterance

involvestheabilitytoidentifytheindividualwordsit

to

contains,totheirlogical

recover

theassociatedconcepts,and

applythedeductiverulesattached

to

entries”(Sperber&Wilson,1995:90).And

an

utterance

intheprocessofinterpretation,

are

thehypothesisisthatthethreeaspectsofentriesofthe

at

compatiblewiththethree

theaddresswherethe

conceptsofthe

utterance

steps

store

respectively.With

theaid

is

non?demonstrative

inference,the

three

ofcomprehension

which

emphasizedbyHuangYanarecompleted.

Asthefinalstepofcomprehensionprocedure,thecontextualimplicationis,

AsetofassumptionsPcontextuallyimplies

all

assumptionQinthecontextifandonlyif

(i)theunionPandCnoll—triviallyimpliesQ(ii)Pdoes

notnon?triviallyimply

Q,and

44

(iii)Cdoesnotnon-triviallyimplyQ

(Sperber&Wilson.1995:i07)

Thethreeaspectsofthecognitiveenvironmentandthetherecouldbemeaningof

ensure

an

utterance

itself

ensure

that

logicalandoverallinferentialprocessofcatchingtheimplicated

utterance.Thecoeffectsofcognitiveenvironment

and

the

utterance

itself

the

correct

understandingandsuccessfulcommunication.As

Call

one

hottopicinthe

ofDMs

fieldofpragmatics,bridging

demonstratecertainaspectofthesignificance

intheprocessofinterpretation.

(28)IpreferEdinburghtoLondon.Ihatethesnowywinters.

(29)IpreferEdinburghtoLondon.However,Ihatethesnowywinters.

(Matsui,2000:180-185)

AccordingtoMatsui,thequestionnairewhowerequestionedwiththefollowingquestion,wheredoesthespeakerhatethesnowywinters?Andthe

sentence

answer

thatgoes

to

to

28isLondonintotal

agreement。The

reason

isthat“someoneprefersAthecontraryto

sentence

forcertainpositive

reasons”(Matsui,2000:180).On

to

29,thehappen.

entirequestionnairechoosesEdinburgh

betheplacewherethesnowy

winters

Then.whal

demands

isthesignificanceoftheDMhowever?

Sincethedetailedillustration

well—knownencyclopedicknowledge,theexamplesrootedinchinawillbe

better.Now,considerthe

followingexamples.

toXiamen,becausesheisinfavorofwarmwinter.toXiamen,althoughsheisinfavorofwarmwinter.

(30)MotherhasmovedfromGuangzhou(31)MotherhasmovedfromGuangzhou

(Ran

Apparently,thewarinwinterin

sentence

Yongpingetal,2006:273.translatedandemphasizedbytheauthor)

winter

in

sentence

30belongs

to

Xiamen,and

thewarm

31belongstoGuangzhou.TheapplicationofDMsdisambiguatesthe

puzzledbridgingprobleminthefollowingsentence.

(32)MotherhasmovedfromGuangzhoutoXiamen.Sheisinfavorofwarmwinter

So,whatisthepossibleillustrationoftheprocessofinterpretationinthescopeofcognitiveinferenceadvocatedbySperberand

45

Wilson?The

followingdescriptioncould

beaconsiderableattempt.

Intheprocessofinterpretingadiscourseinthescopeofcognitivepragmatics,astheauthorhashypothesizedinChapterthreeanddiscussedintheprecedingparts,therewillbe

goestoacombinationofencyclopedicrepresentationandproceduralcomputation.Itsentence32thattheauthorhasexemplifiedinthreeaspects:encyclopedic

lexicalentries.Sincethedescriptionofthisanalysisis

aentries,logicalentriesandabriefandroughtrial,therewillbeonlydescriptionoftheformertwoentries,whichignores

onthecomplexandenergy—consumingofdiscussionlexicalentries.Atleast,thereare3

assumptionsofencyclopedicentriesofsentence

a32:ThereiswarmwinterinGuangzhou.

cThereTheiSwarmwinterinXiamen,too.onemovingfromplacetoanotherplaceisforpositiveresults.

sentenceThetwopossibleillustrationofthiscouldbe

The

TheintentionofspeakeristhatthereiswarmwinterinGuangzhou.intentionofspeakeristhatthereiswarmwinterinXiamen.

toAccordingstandardruleofmodus

sentencestollendoponens伊andQrepresentthepropositionsexpressedbytherespectively)

(a)Input:(i)妒or9

(ii)(notD

Output:Q

(b)Input:(i)(尸or9

(ii)(riot9

Output:P

(Sperber&Wilson,1995:87)

So,theinterpretationof

ofsentence32istOfindouttheevidencetonegatetheexistenceordertoeliminate

onP(warmwinterinGuangzhou)orQ(warmwinterinXiamen)inoneofthemandjustifyanotherone.Unfortunately,thecomputationsolelyrelying

workoutthestandardlogicalrulesdoesnottherealintentionofthiscommunication

althoughthere

are

enoughcontextualassumptions

to

as

theauthorhaslistedabove。

Ofcourse.itisdifficult

our

defmetheroleofDMsintheworkingmechanismsof

mindin

micro,experimentalandobjective

levelinthispaperforthemethod

whichtheauthorselects.However,itcouldbepostulatedthatthedifferentchoicesof

DMsin

sentences

dohave

to

all

effect

on

theinferentialprocessatcertainpoint,such

as

thelogicalentries

selectthepotentialeliminationofpremises,astheexampleshave

shownforthispurpose.

4.3TheFunctionsof

DMs

inDiscourseInterpretation

Aftertheanalysisoftheprecedingparts,itiswell—developedthatDMscouldmake

an

effectatthesemanticandpragmaticlevel.InthescopeofRT,DMshelpthespeaker

attheostensiveleveland

thehearerattheinferentiallevel,and

Success

at

lastthecontextual

effectsinfluencedbyDMspromisethe

ofthecommunication.Inthefollowing

toshow

part,theauthorattemptstoadopttwofigures

comparativelysuccinctand

objective

description.

4.3.1The

Macro.description

oftheOstensive-inferentialProcess

Thereis

standardpictureofinterpreting

discourse

and

to

communication.Thebe

recoveryofthemessagecommunicatedbythe

speaker

issaid

hybridprocess

involvingbothsemanticinterpretationandpragmaticinterpretation.

Thewiththe

semantic

interpretationis

ofthat

to

dig

out

thetruth-conditionofanarbitrarythe

sentence

knowledge

language

by

interpreter.However,thepragmatic

andthehypothesisisthat

interpretationistoknowwhythespeakerdoeswhathedoes

thespeakerisrational,theinterpretationisdefeasibleandthereiSofcontextualinformationthat

Call

no

limittothe

amount

inprincipleaffectthepragmaticinterpretation

(Recanati,2002).The

test

of

processofrecoveryofpropositionalmeaning

an

utterancetO

the

truthvalueinvolves

freeenrichmentwhichconsistsofstrengtheningand

47

expansion@,saturationand

assemantictransfer(Recanati,2004)exemplifiedrespectivelyfollowing.

(33)

(34)

(35)

(36)Ihavebrushedmyteeth【thismorning】wedding】Ihavenothing[suitable】towear[toJohn’SElizabethiscleverer[thanNaomi】onShakespeareisthetopshelfi

Actually,thisprocesscalledprimarypragmaticprocess⑦byRecanatiisroughlyequaltothewaytodeterminehigher-levelexplicatureswhichtheauthorhasdiscussedinChapterthree.Asforthisdiscussion,withinthescopeofRT,thefollowingfigureispresentedtoshowthesuccinctdescription.

Figure2Themacro-descriptionoftheostensive-inferentia!process

Inthisfigure,theauthorattemptstodemonstratethatintheostensive—inferential

areprocess,bothlevelsofexplicaturesandimplicaturesscheduledtoshowandfindout

thecontextualeffects.Cognitively,theinputisinterpretedintotheoutputthroughtheproceduresdefinedbyHunagYahinChapterthree.Intheviewoftheauthor,theinputcouldberoughlyequaltotheostensivebehaviors,andthedecodingandinferenceare@Theoutputpropositionyieldedbyinputoneentailstheoriginalpropositioninthefirstsubtype.butthesecondsubtypehasnosuchdemand(HuangYah,2007).

寸Primanrpragmaticprocessneednotinvolveaninference.butlheprocessofunderstandinghigher-levelexplicatureinvolvesinference.Besides.thereissecondar3rpragmaticprocesswhichdetermineswhatthespeakermeansonthebasisofwhathesayswhenwhatthespeakermeansgoesbeyondwhathesays(Recanati,1993)

involvedintothefirstleveltoproducecontextualeffects.Theobliquetransitionalperiodfromexplicitlevel

involvestheinferencetotoareameanstheimplicitlevel.And,theimplicitlevelsolelyasaproducecontextualeffects.Afterthisprocess.theoutputmixtureofthenewassumptionsandexiaedassumptionscomesintothemindofthehearer.AsforthefunctionofDMs,ithappensbasedonattheostensiveandinferentiallevelthecomprehensionprocedure,andthefinaleffectiSthecontextualeffects.4.3.2TheFlowChartofDiscourseInterpretationBasedandtheFunctionsofonRTDMs

ThedetailedandessentialdiscussionoftheroleofDMsindiscourseiSstill

allcompulsoryandworthwhile,evenifthediscussionisabstractlytheoreticattempt

touncoverwithouttheexperimentalprocedure.Theconfrontingchallengeis

roleofDMscognitivelyinthewholeprocessofinterpretingatheexactdiscourse.Asforthispoint,figure2showsthemacro-descriptionoftheostensive—inferentialprocess,andwhatauthorneedstodonOWiStopresentamicroanddetaileddescriptionoftheintemalschemaofthewholeprocess.The

onfollowingfigureisprovidedtoshowtheRT.basicinterpretationmodelwhichiSbased

Figure3TheFlowChartofDiscourseInterpretationBased

49OnRT(Sstandsforspeaker,Hfor

hearer,Pthepropositionalformofutterance,Cforcontextwhichincludesthecommunicationcontextandabroadersocialcontext,RoPtherepresentationofProposition,ISinputsystem,CScentralsystem,LxElexicalentries,EEencyclopedicentries,LoElogicalentries.10Sfortheintentionofspeaker)

AstheflowchartshowsthespeakeruttersallutteranceconstrainedbyC1whichis

notadevelopedintoC2throughtheprocessingofcentralsystemsofhearer,whichis

simpleprocessofaddingpropositionalformofthe

C3andP.TheninteractedwithutterancetoC1,butthehybridofC1,inC2theexistingthreeentries.theassumptionsdemonstratetheirimplicaturesandfurthertheintentionofspeaker.TheoverlappingeffectofC1andC3insomedegreeisshownbythe

SOcurveline.Here,C1isthepre—buildingcontextofthespeakerand

contextisC3forthehearer.AndthemostimportantisC2,whichistheproductionofcontextualeffects.

onBased

ofthethismodel,thereisahypothesisthatthemomenttheostensivebehaviorsspeakerappeartheinferenceo.fhearerbegins.Constrainedbytheprincipleof

discoursethespeakerproducesisthemostrelevantonerelevance,thesharedbythe

ofwhichishearer,andthisprocessinvolvestheselectionofDMs,the

demonstratedintheperiodofcontextsignificance2andthecentralsystemsofthehearer.So,DMsmakeagreatinfluenceonthecontextualeffectsthroughthespecialroleoftwolevelsof

withexplicaturesandimplicaturesthenecessaryinvolvementofconceptual

representationofthediscourse.Andalltheprocessisprocessedinthecentralsystemofthespeakerbeforeheuttersitandthehearerafterhereceivesit.Relyingonthecasesexemplifiedintheprecedingchapters,theauthorstrongholdsthatthefunctionsofDMshappenatboththesemanticandpragmaticlevel.Intheprocessofinterpretation,thecontextualeffectsmustbeinfluencedbytheexistenceofDMs.Asforthecentralprocessingsystemsofthecommunicator,theoverwhelmingeffectofDMsiscalculatedinlogicalentries.

Obviously,theprecedingdiscussiondemonstratesthefunctionsofDMsextentandatosomeshowsthemotivationofDMsindiscourse.Inwhatfollowsthereiscasestudy

levelofcontrastwhichstronglydemandstheexistenceofDMswhenthepragmatic

interpretationneedsinthespecialcontexttoshowthespecialintention.4.4ACaseStudyofContrastiveCoherenceRelationsand

TointerpretaCDMsdiscourse,especiallyamonologue

atextinvolvestherecognitionofthecoherencerelationsinthetext.whichiSbasicideaofthescholarswhoareinfavor

oneofanalyzingthediscourseintheperspectiveofcoherence.As

relations,thecontrastivecoherencerelationsappeartosubtypeofcoherencebeanexception(Taboada,2006),

aanditisverynaturaltomeetthesentencesexpressingcontrastmarkedby

toDM,whichiscompatiblewiththedistinctiveeffectofDMsconstraintheinterpretationandthe

proceduralmeaning.Academically,theDMsexpressingcontrastiverelationsbetweensentencesarenamedascontrastiveDMs(CDMs)whichhavebeeninvestigatedbythescholarswhoareinterestedinDMsandconnectivesinthebroaderfieldofsemantics4.4.1TheMotivationofAdoptingCDMs

toTobeginwiththediscussionofthesignificanceofCDMs

needsaexpresscontrastsbasicdefinitionofcontrastivecoherencerelations,whichinvolvetwosegments

allofdiscourseandthespecificfeaturesoftwosegments.Acoherencerelationis

oraspectofmeaningoftwomorediscoursesegmentsthatcannotbedescribedintermsofthe

meaningofthesegmentsinisolation.Inotherwordsitisbecauseofthiscoherencerelationthatthemeaningoftwodiscoursesegmentsismorethanthesumoftheparts(Sandersetal,1992).Asforthefeaturesofcontrastivecoherencerelations,Hobbsputsitinthisway.

Inferp(a)fromtheassertionofSoand1p(b)fromtheassertionofS1,whereareaandbsimilar

Inferp(a)fromtheassertionofSoandp(b)fromtheassertionofS1,wherethereissomepropertyqsuchthatq(a)and--q(b)@

So@Pisproposition.SoandSIaretheadjacentpairsofanutterancewith

sentencesandqisthepropertyoftheconstituents.51precedings1,aandbaretheconstituentsof

0-Iobbs,1985:21)

ThemeticulousreconsiderationofthefirstcriterionofHobbsdrawssemanticopposition,whichdoescontextualfactorsexemplified

as

our

attentiontothe

or

not

require

anykindofencyclopedicknowledge

following.

(37)JohnisquickbutBillisslow.

Judgingfromthisexample,apparently,thewordsquickaccording

to

and

slowareantonyms

traditional

semantics

whichalso

standsinlinewiththedefinition.Now,

considerthefollowingexample.

(38)Johnisquickbutheis

no

goodatfootball.

sentence

Obviously,tounderstandthisinthe

is

notSO

simpleas

to

just

findthe

antonyms

sentence。andusuallythereare

and

costs

no

suchantonymsinthesentence.Itinvolves

toone

somefurther

knowledge

moreenergytofindthepropertythatbelongs

kindof

contrast

segmentdescribedincriterion

b.This

Can

besimplydefinedasthefindingthemotivationofisanotherexampleworthy

pragmaticcontrast.Andthekeyissueofthispartmarking

centerson

pragmaticnot

semanticcontrastwithCDMs.There

ofattention.

(39)Peter

wentout.Itwasraining.

Whenconfrontedwiththisdiscourse,thehearermustmake

decision

on

whatthe

relationisbetweenthe

twoutterances.The

intuitiontells

US

themosteconomical

and

couldbemergedintothe

acceptablerelationcouldbecircumstance,andthediscourse

following

sentence.

wentoutwhenitwasraining.

(40)Peter

However,isthereany

possibilitywe

inclineto

produce

another

sentenceas

following?

(41)PeterwentIfwemakethere

out

althoughitWasraining.

comparison

between

sentences

40and41intheperspectiveofRT,is

any

differenceintheprocessofinterpretationthat

Canillustratethepreference

to

circumstaIlcerather

than

concessive

relation?And

52

thehypothesisisthattheremustbe

certainevidencedominatingtheselection.Inorder

to

have

succinctandP

discussion,Q

to

is

assumed

to

standfortheprecedingsegmentPeterwent

out

thefollowing

segmentitwasraining.

In

sentence

40,itisclearthattheroleofPis

tO

producethesituationwhenQ

happens,and

therelationofPand

is

naturalinstantiationoftheencyclopediceveryoneknows

representationofthe

humanbeings,becausealmost

andexperiences

it.So,

knowledgehasbeenpartoftheencyclopedicentriesexistinginthecentralsystems

ofthemind.

In

sentence

41,itisclearthatthereis

not

all

additionalmeaningbehindthissentence;

thetimeitisrainingisthatis

suitableforgoingout.And,TheCDMpresupposes

format

Normally,IfPthen

not

to

Obviously,thispreconditionstillbelongs

notstrong

theencyclopedicknowledge

whichis

enough

to

to

differentiate

sentence

40from41.know

Inorder

context

doSO,itisnecessary

to

felicitousstandardthatin

given

thereshouldbesomestatementwhichPimplies

to

andQ

denies.Theletter

Can

beused

representthenegationofsuch

statement,whichis

an

overallimplicationof

thewholecontrastivesentence.ThestatementPthenimplies

notrout

andQ

implies

(Winter,1994).The

sentence

interpretationofpragmaticcontrastis

to

dig

theimplication.In

41,therecouldbe

possibler“Peterwent

notr。

out

forplayingbasketball”.Soitis

evidentthatPnormallyimplies

Accordingtotheprincipleofoptimalrelevance,theheareralwaysinclines

to

spend

theleastprocessingefforts.Sointheprocessofinterpretation,themomenthefeelsthecontextualeffectshavebeenachievedwiththeleasteffortshestopspursuingmoreefforts—consumingcontextualeffects.Sincethecontrastivecoherencerelationalwaysimplicateswill

cost

allr

behindthesuperficiallinguistic

form,there

is

no

doubtthattofindit

moreprocessingeffortsandtheinterpretationwillbeoverloaded.Andthis

one

illustrationcouldbeatleast

strongreason,ifnotall,todemonstratetheinclination

53

ofpreferring40to41。AndthemotivationofCDMsistoindicatethethemoreefforts-consumingimplicitknowledge.

The

whichnextpartwillbeallattempttohaveacasestudyofantithesisandconcessionaresubtypesofthecontrastivecoherencerelation.4.4.2TheCaseStudyofInterpretingAntithesisandConcession

Toindicateaspecialkindofrelationusedtointernalrepresentationofexternal

toworldandmanifesttheintensionofcommunicatorsinvolvestheconsiderableefforts

choosecertainlinguisticformsinordertohaveanexactindicatorevenforthesamecoherencerelmion.Afterreadingtheprecedingpart,themotivationtomarkcontrastivecoherencerelationsiswell

otherissuesknowntointhescopeofRT.However,therearestillsomebeawithinthistopicleftfuturediscussionastothedifferentdemanding

andofthosesubtypes.Asforthesubtypesofcontrastivecoherence

cone:essioncometorelations,antithesisbethemostconsiderableonesfortheirfrequentadoptioninlinguisticexpression.Accordingtonucleus

respects

readerSRST,forantithesis,thesituationspresentedinasandandcansatelliteareindifferinginacontrast,andshouldbecomprehendedthesameinmanyarefewrespectsfromwhichthedifferencescompared.So,nothavepositiveregardsforboththesituationspresentedinNandSeandtheincompatibilityincreasedreaders’positiveregardforthesituationinN.Asforconcession,thewriteracknowledgesapotentialorapparentincompatibilitybetweenthesituationspresentedinNandSandregardsthesituationspresentedinNandSare

forthesituationcompatible.Andthecompatibilityincreasesreaders’positiveregard

presentedinN(Mann&Thompson,1987).Actually,thedifferentiationofantithesisand

onconcessionrelies

beforehe

touttersthepresuppositionofthewriterontherelationbetweenNandSthediscourseandtheprocessbywhichtheeffectisachievedaccordingthistheory.IfSO,whatisthedifferenceofinterpretingantithesisandconcessionin谚NandSareusednamethesegmentsofasentence.whichisavariantfordifferenttypesofsentences?Usually,N

willbeisthemainclauseandSisthesub.clause.Ifitisasimplesentence,thesegmentaroundthefocusinformationto

N,andothersareS.54

theflameofRT?Now,considerthefollowingexample.

(42)Shehashad

work

very

difficulttimethissemester.ButIthinksheshouldhandinsomeofthe

(43)She

hashad

very

difficulttimethissemester.Nevertheless,I

think

sheshould

hand

in

someofthework.

(44)Althoughshehashad

thework.

verydifficulttimethissemester,1thinksheshouldhandin

someof

(45)Ithink

semeSter.

sheshouldhandinsomeofthework,althoughshehashadavery

difficulttimethis

Based

on

the

figuretheauthorhasgiven,tointerpret

are

discourse,themost

importantstepistoknowwhatthepositivecognitiveeffectsfour

sentencesare

incontext.Theabove

composedofthesamesegmentswhich

are

linkedbydifferentDMs

cause

showingdifferentattitudesandintentionsofthespeaker.ThosedifferenceswilldifferentcognitiveeffectsinthecognitiveenvironmentsofthehearerwhoimpliedintensionsmanifestedbythechoiceofdifferentDMsandmake

Concretely,theDMbutusedintreatingthedifficultyasroughlyequal

tOeven

anexcuse

sentence

can

catchthe

feedback.

42directlyeliminatesthepossibilityof

nothandinginthework.The

DMnevertheless,

SO,usedin

sentence

43admitsthefactthatshehashad

very

an

difficulttimethissemester,butdeniesthepossibilityoftreatingthedifficulty

excuse

as

not

handinginthework.TheDMalthoughusedin

as

sentences

44

and

45admitshanding

thepossibilityoftreatingthedifficultyinthework.

an

excuse

but

notstrong

enough

not

Intheframeofrelevance.theutilizationofencyclopedicrepresentationofthecontrary,the

antithesis

does

not

demandthe

shared

propositional

usually

meaningbeforethepresupposes

thatthe

DM.Onthe

propositional

utilization

ofconcession

meaningbeforetheDMhasbeenstoredinthecentralsystemsofthehearer,forwhichtheprocessingeffortsspent

on

concession

cost

more.Butthemoreeffortsgiveriseto

furthermoreeffectfortheconcessionusuallyexpressesmoreattitudesofthespeaker

55

besidesthenegationoftheproposition.So,itismucheasiertoknowtheacceptanceofaandweirdnessofbnowinthefollowingexample.

(46)【speaker,who

a1isinshocLisgivenwhiskey】But1don’tdrink.

?N『everthelessIdon’tdrink.

4.5Summary

Int11ischapter,thedistinctiverolesofDMsininterpretingdiscourseinthearerevealedframeworkofRT.Throughtheanalysis,itisdemonstratedthatDMshavethe

uncoverindicatingroleto

alsoowingtotheexplicatedandimplicatedmeaningsofonadiscourse,andonthedifferenteffectscontext,theycouldmakegreatinfluenceboth

the

attheostensiveendeavorsofspeakerandtheinferentialeffortsofthehearer.Basedonprecedingdiscussion,twofiguresaregiventoshowthewholeprocessofinterpreting

macroandmicronlevelintheframework

analysisofRTandalsothelatestfindingsoftheinferentialprocess.Afterthat,theofthemarkedcontrastivecoherencerelations

atstronglydemonstratesthemotivationofadoptingDMsthediscourselevel.

ChapterFive

Conclusion

5.1FindingsandImplicationsofthePresentStudy

AstheauthorhassaidinChapterone,themotivationespeciallyDCspusheshimhaveproducedhas

to

dig

to

out

thevaluesofDMs,

to

writethispaper,andthanks

on

thegreatscholarswho

a11

excellentfoundation

on

thistopicand

manageabletheory,theauthor

tentativestudyofDMstheprocessofinterpretingdiscourse.Comparedwith

thehypothesisinChapterthree,thediscussioninthischapteradmitstheproceduralmeaningof

DMs,andthedetailedinterpretingprocessshownbythefigurespresentsofDMsmainlydevelopsintheperiodofinferenceandthe

thattheproceduralmeaning

andsome

logicalentries.Aidedbytheclassicexamplesdemonstratedbyotherauthorsvaluable

ones

bytheauthorhimself,theauthormakes

contributioninthefollowing

threeaspects.

Firstly,theexistenceofDMsdoes

have

thefunction

on

bothlevelsofexplicatures

and

implicatureswhich

on

are

thedominatingtaskofinterpreting

to

discourse.Asforthe

language

roleofDMs

explicatures,owing

not

the

principle

ofeconomy,the

expressionsarealways

complete,whichadmitsthepossibilityandnecessityof

to

interpreting.So,theexistenceofDMsdoescontribute

digouttheexact,especially

thehigher-levelexplicatures.Asfortheimplicauresofdiscourse,sincethesegmentsof

discoursepermitthepossibilityofascribingdifferemcoherencerelationstothem,

are

there

differentpotentialimplicaturesmarkedbydifferentDMs.Throughtheanalysis,

areto

thefunctionsofDMs

make

selectionofthe

exact

explicatures

and

inferring

implicaturesamongallpossibilities.

Secondly,theauthorostensive.inferential

makesan

attempt

to

unveilthe

roles

significance

in

the

ofDMsinthe

process

of

communication

andtheir

whole

interpretationwithinthe

havetheability

to

frameworkofRT.Through

an

theanalysis,itisknownthatDMs

indicate

ostentivebehaviortoshowtheintentionsofspeakersby

improvingtheclarityofexplicatures.Ontheotherendofcommunication,thehearer

S7

makes

all

inferenceinvirtueofDMsandthedeductiverules,throughwhichtheofspeakersof

isuncovered.Inthethe

context

intentionfunctions

whole

processofcommunication,the

to

DMs

on

are

the

medium

produce

the

expected

Call

communicative

goalsbothforthespeakerandhearer.TheexistenceofDMsthechoiceofdifferentDMswill

cause

manifestthecontextualeffectsusuallyentries.

even

effects,and

different

withthesame

utterances.IntheframeworkofRT,theexistenceofDMs

cuts

downtheprocessingeffortsdirectly

and

producesmorerelevanceinlogical

Thirdly,themotivationofmarkingcontrastivecoherencerelationsisdiscovered.Inotherwords,theexistenceofCDMsdoe.shavetheevidenceindiscourseinterpretationintheframeworkofRT.Anditistheimplicatedpresuppositionwhichcostsmoreprocessingeffortsthatpushesthehearertheprinciplethattheprocessingdifference

between

pragmatic

to

chooseCDMs,anditcouldbeillustratedby

stopswhentheoptimalrelevance

and

concession

lies

on

achieves.The

or

contrast

theexistence

nonexistenceofthepreexistingencyclopedicknowledge.

5.2LimitationsandSuggestionsforFurtherStudy

This

thesishasmade

not

an

investigation

on

theimportantpointsofDMsindiscourse

interpretation,which

onlyimprovestheunderstandingofDMs,atthesametime,beworthdiscussing.

givesrisetosomeissues

to

Firstly,thispapernarrowsdowntheresearchofDMsintothelocalcoherencelevel,thatis

to

say,theeffect

on

theinterpretationofthe

adjacent

the

pairs.So,thisresearchisflowingof

heavilycoloredwith

communication.Actually,since

discourseis

the

continuous,theadoptionofcertainDMsdoes

pairs,butalsothe

sentences

notonlyhave

animpact

on

adjacent

at

inthelongerstretch.Owingtothis,theresearchofDMs

globallevelisworthdiscussing.

Secondly,the

exact

rolesofDMsindiscourseinterpretation,especiallythe

exact

momentandpositionwhereDMsplayroleisstillworthnoticingwiththefurther

researchontheworkingmechanismofmindandthedevelopmentoflinguistics.

aBesides,thispaperisonlytentativestudywithoutanyexperimentorexactstatisticsto

supportthehypothesis.So,theinterdisciplinaryresearchisneededtofindtheessenceandprinciplesofdiscourseinterpretationaffectedbyDMs.

Finally,theresearchonthecontrastsuppliesenoughroomtohavefurtherstudy.Thispaper,owingtotheresearchscopemarkingcontrastandspace,simplypointsoutthemotivationofintheframeworkofRT.However,asweallknow,thenumbersandclassificationsofCDMsarenumerousincludingthetraditionalcontrastiveconjunctions,adverbialsexpressingcontrastsand

commandsthefurtherstudy.SOon.So,theoverallandprofoundanalysis

59

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语篇识解中话语标记功能和理据研究关联理论视角

语篇识解中话语标记功能和理据研究——关联理论视角

作者:

学位授予单位:王晓伟河南大学

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10.期刊论文 李宗江.Li Zongjiang "看你"类话语标记分析 -语言科学2009,8(3)

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