话语指及其篇章功能研究
【摘要】:人类之所以需要语言就是要用语言来谈论世界,可是语言一旦产生,语言本身也是一种存在,同样要用语言来谈论。目前作为语言学研究对象的主要是外指状态的语言,即研究语言是如何谈论语言之外的世界的。对于日常交际中如何用语言来谈论语言的现象还没有引起语言学界的足够重视。本文以汉语中用来谈论语言的必要条件——话语指为研究对象,在自元语言理论背景下,主要运用篇章语言学、话语分析、语用学、语义学、语言学、语言哲学的基本理论,按照从形式到功能的研究思路对此现象进行分析,旨在探讨汉语话语指的基本特征及其篇章功能。全文由三大篇组成,第一篇是总论,上篇讨论话语指的类型以及与话语指相关的语用现象——引语,下篇讨论话语指的篇章功能,共分七章。总论。本章简要介绍话语指研究的理论背景及与话语指相关的研究,指明话语指的研究对象以及深入研究的内容,说明本文的选题价值、研究思路与框架、研究理论与方法。第一章话语指称。本章根据语言单位包括形式与内容(意义)的特点将话语指称分为三个层次:整体指、形式指、内容指;根据指称特点的不同,对话语指称进行分类,最后分析话语指称语内部以及话语指称语与外指状态语言的指称在句法和功能上的差异。第二章话语指示。本章首先指出国内在话语指示的界定上存在的问题,并对话语指示进行界定,认为指示性与话语性是话语指示的本质特征。其次,根据话语指示的指示对象及其在篇章内外的表现对话语指示的类型进行分类。再次,分析话语
指示与话语指称关的系以及其话语指示与一般指示的差异。认为话语指示语的所指对象可以在篇章中出现,是话语指示与一般指示的最大差异。第三章话语实示。本章在对实示进行界定的基础上,提出话语实示的层级分类系统。然后,着重讨论口语交际书面实示与篇章话语的书面实示的差异。接着,运用言语行为理论分析不同类型的话语实示的言语行为特征。最后,分析话语实示与话语指称和话语指示的关系。第四章引语。本章在国内外引语研究的基础上,对汉语的引语类型进行分类,将引语分为直接引语、间接引语、自由直接引语和自由间接引语,并提出了分类的标准。运用意向性理论分析引语的生成机制,讨论引语的递归结构。最后,分析引语与话语指称、话语指示和话语实示的关系。第五章话语指的篇章组织功能。本章讨论话语指照应与回指现象,分析话语指的篇章衔接功能以及文本(篇章)嵌入功能。分析话语照应以及话语回指/下指与一般照应和回指/下指之间的区别;分析话语指篇章衔接功能的表现形式以及不同性质的话语指衔接功能的差异;分析话语指文本嵌入功能的表现形式以及不同性质的话语指文本嵌入功能的差异。第六章话语指的篇章结构功能。本章讨论话语指的管界现象及其篇章结构的标记功能。着重分析话语指示语和话语指称语的篇章管界作用、引语的被管界问题,归纳确定话语管界的手段。讨论话语指的篇章宏观结构的标记功能与篇章局部结构的标记功能以及篇章结构功能实现的方式。【关键词】:话语指话语指称话语指示话语实示引语篇章功能照应功能篇章衔接篇章嵌入篇章管界篇章结构标记
?【学位授予单位】:华东师范大学
?【学位级别】:博士
?【学位授予年份】:2005
?【分类号】:H14
?【目录】:总论11-39一、话语指研究的理论背景:从语言之外到语言自身11-16二、话语指:语言被谈论的必要条件16-31三、本文的选题价值与研究目标31-32四、已有的相关研究32-37五、本文的研究内容与文章的结构37-38六、本文的研究理论与方法38-39上篇话语指与引语39-126第一章话语指称39-621.1话语指称的三个层次与话语名词41-481.1.1话语指称的三个层次41-441.1.2话语名词44-481.2话语指称的类型48-521.2.1有指话语指称48-511.2.2无指话语指称51-521.3话语指称词语的句法与功能差异分析52-621.3.1话语指称词内部句法差异52-581.3.2话语指称与一般指称的差异58-62第二章话语指示62-832.1话语指示的界定62-692.1.1已有的界定及存在的问题62-642.1.2话语指示的本质特征64-692.2话语指示语69-772.3话语指示类型77-802.3.1篇内话语指示与篇外话语指示77-792.3.2核心话语指示与外围话语指示79-802.4话语指示与话语指称的关系80-812.5话语指示与一般指示的差异81-83第三章话语实示83-1013.1实示及其类型83-863.2口语交际的书面实示与篇章话语的书面实示86-983.2.1口语交际的书面实示86-933.2.2篇章话语的书面实示93-963.2.3口语交际的书面实示与篇章话语的书面实示的差异96-983.3话语实示的言语行为特征98-1003.4话语实示与话语指称、
话语指示的关系100-101第四章引语101-1264.1引语的类型与功能101-1114.1.1已有的分类101-1034.1.2我们的分类103-1094.1.3引语的语用功能109-1114.2引语形成的意向性解释111-1174.3言语动词、意向动词与言说语境117-1214.4引语的递归结构121-1234.5引语与话语指的关系123-126下篇话语指的功能126-177第五章话语指的篇章组织功能126-1525.1话语指的篇章衔接功能126-1475.1.1话语照应126-1295.1.2话语回指和下指129-1405.1.3不同性质的话语指的篇章衔接功能140-1425.1.4话语指衔接功能的语言表现形式142-1445.1.5不同性质的话语指的衔接力144-1475.2话语指的篇章(文本)嵌入功能147-1525.2.1文本与视域147-1485.2.2话语指为什么具有文本嵌入功能148-1495.2.3话语指文本嵌入的枢纽149-1515.2.4不同性质的话语指文本嵌入功能的差异151-152第六章话语指的篇章结构功能152-1776.1话语指的篇章管界152-1706.1.1管界与话语管界152-1536.1.2话语管领词的管界确定153-1636.1.3引语的管界问题163-1706.2话语指的篇章结构标记功能170-1776.2.1话语指为什么具有篇章结构标记功能170-1716.2.2话语指的篇章宏观结构标记功能171-1746.2.3话语指的篇章局部结构标记功能174-177参考文献177-181后记181 本论文购买请联系页眉网站。
河南大学
硕士学位论文
语篇识解中话语标记功能和理据研究——关联理论视角
姓名:王晓伟
申请学位级别:硕士
专业:英语语言文学
指导教师:杨朝军
20090401
中文摘要
话语标记通常标示语篇扩展趋向,而非描述语篇本身,主要体现了语篇层面的语用功能而没有严格的语法限制。
相比那些反映语言能力的语言现象,由于语言学对于语言运用的关注以及探究句子层面之上语言现象的渴望,话语标记的研究才引起了学界的注意。随着1987年,第一本独著《话语标记》的出现,此后二十余年间关于此项研究逐渐形成了三个走向,但是对于话语标记语篇识解中的功能以及语篇层面下存在理据的研究还未认真思索。所以作者在本文中主要关注两点问题:其一是在关联理论框架下话语标记在语篇识解中的具体作用;其--贝,tJ是找出话语标记存在于语篇中的理据。
本文所采用的理论为关联理论,研究方法则是演绎、定性和假设性的。依据所采用理论以及方法,作者推测话语标记在语篇层面主要起到限制和标示功能,而关联理论的最大关联原则可以解释话语标记的存在理据。
依据关联理论的基本准则和最新关于语用意义的探讨,本文首先指出话语标记对于显性和隐性意义的影响。随后则重点探讨关联理论框架内话语标记在隐性意义获取过程中的作用:对于说话者明示行为的影响,说话者和听话人所共享的语境的影响以及对于听话人推理过程的影响。此外话语标记的存在理据研究也是一个重点。
经过探讨,本文主要取得以下发现:
1,
2,
3,话语标记在帮助取得最大关联的同时可以指示说话人的表达意图;话语标记的指示功能主要发生在推理过程时中央系统的逻辑输入位置;从语篇识解角度来讲特定话语标记作为筛选连贯关系的过滤器是必需
的。关键词:话语标记;话语识解;功能;理据;关联理论
Abstract
Discoursemakers(DMs)arethoseexpressionsindicatingthewaytoexpand
atadiscourse,notdescribingitandrevealingthepragmaticfunctions
usuallynothediscourselevel,grammaticalconfining.
toshowthelinguisticComparedwiththeanalysisofotherlinguisticphenomena
competenceofhumanbeings,thearousinginterestintoDMsamongtheacademicstaff
turntoisinaccordancewiththeuprisingofthelinguisticrealizethesignificanceof
performanceandthedemandtounveilthemysteriouselementsabovethesentencelevel.InthepasttwodecadesofyearsafterthepublicationofthegreatbookDiscourseMarkers,thefirstmonographonDMswrittenbyDeboraSchiffrin,itisgenerallyacknowledgedbyscholarsthattherearethreebranchesofDMsresearch.HoweveLtheresearchofDMsindiscourseinterpretationis
narrowlyconcentratesonnotseriouslycalculated.So,theauthorexacttwopointsinthispaper:theroleofDMsintheperspectiveofdiscourseinterpretationandthemotivationofcertainDMsexistingindiscourse.
ThetheoryadoptedinthispaperisRTandthemethodologyisdeductive,qualitativeandhypothetical.Confinedtothetheoryandmethodology,theauthorsupposesthatthefunctionsofDMsindiscourseinterpretationareconstrainingandindicatingandthemotivationofthemcouldbeillustratedbytheprincipleoftheoptimalrelevance.
BasedonthedoctrinesofRTandthelatesttheoriesofmeanings
aneffectinpragmatics,thisonpaperfirstlypointsoutthattheexistenceofDMshas
explicaturesbothleveloftheprocessofandimplicatures.Afterthat,theauthorswitchestoworkout
inferringimplicaturesinthescopeofRT,whichisseparatedintothreesteps,theostensivebehaviorsofthespeaker
oftheaspreparations,thecontextualeffectssharedbybothtospeakerandhearerandtheinferenceofthehearer.Besides,thetentativeknowthemotivationofutilizingcertainDMsisanothertopic.
Throughtheanalysis,theauthormakesacontributioninthosethreeaspects:1,DMsisusedas
oftheallindicatortopredicttheutterancestoandoutworkouttheintentionspeakerbythehearerthemomenttheyhelphimfind
attheoptimalrelevance;2,TheindicatingfunctionofDMsmainlyhappens
ofcentralsystemsintheprocessofinference;theaddressoflogicalentries
3,CertainDMsarenecessaryintheperspectiveofdiscourseinterpretationfiltertoselectpotentialcoherencerelations.asaKeyWords:DiscourseMarkers;DiscourseInterpretation;Functions;Motivation;
RelevanceTheory
关于学位论文独立完成和内容创新的声明
硼删说一测丝{一簿荔粼熬臻,∥‘二‰≯}鬻箩;/夕妒》b』
学位印请冬,《学住论文作者》签名:一竺::盐爿墨』2.一
麓∥泌,’‰彰糍‰苏撼黪豫.,∥、+?气雾
学位获得者(学位论文作者)釜名:二幽匕虚
20D.
学位论文指导教师签名:20
Acknowledgements
Mydeepestgratitudegoesfirstandforemosttomysupervisor,ProfessorYangChaojan.for
thestageshisconstantencouragementandofthis
notguidance.Hehishaswalkedmethroughallofthewritingthesis.Withoutconsistentandilluminatinginstruction,thisthesiscouldhavereacheditspresentform.
Secondly,IshouldgivemyheartythankstoalltheotherfacultymembersoftheCollege,ProfessorXuShenghURn,ProfessorNiuBaoyi,ProfessorZhangKeding,ProfessorGuoShangxingandProfessor
variousCOurSeSMa8aojinfortheirpatientinstructionsinandtheirprecioussuggestionsformystudyhere.
Lastly,mythankswouldgotomybelovedfamily,myparentsandmywifeHuFeng,fortheirlovingconsiderationsandgreatconfidenceinmeallthroughthesethreeyears.Ialsoowemysinceregratitudetomyfriendsandmyfellowclassmateswhogavemetheirhelpandtimeinlistening
theditticultcoursetomeandhelpingmeworkoutmyproblemsduringofthethesis.
ChapterOne
Introduction
Discoursecouldbeanylengthofverbalexpressions.Usually,itissyntacticform.As
a
an
independent
not
discourse,itshouldbecoherentinorder
to
beunderstood
only
correctly,butalsoexactly.
Tointerpret
a
discourse,insomesense,is
a
to
knowinwhichwaythediscourseis
area
coherent.Thecoherenceofdiscourseisanalysis,whichisthe
time-honoredtopicinthe
ofdiscourse
counterpartto
thesuperficialformallinkageofdiscourse,namely,
a
cohesion.Usually,“acoherentdiscoursehasrevealsthat
on
well-organizedconstruction,which
call
the
basisofinternal
panemsandregularitieswe
formulate
generalizationsaboutwhichkindsofunitsprecedeandfollowwhichotherkindsofunits,both
in
single-sentence
utterancesand
in
longertexts
and
conversations’’
(Johnstone,2008:78).At
structure
thepresent
time,mostscholars
acknowledgethehierarchical
ofdiscourse,whosebasicelementsarethelinearpresentationof
linguistic
units,sincethelinguistic
or
units(here,the
a
unitsareclauses)areinsinglelines,preceding
followingeachother.So,thereiswrittentext,does
a
basicassumptionthatdiscourse,boththespoken
and
not
consistofrandomseriesofisolatedsentences,butusually
forms
coherentstructureofunitsindifferentsizesandnature.Inotherwords,theunits
shouldbeinternallylinkedfromthevariouskindsofcoherencerelationsconstituentunitsofthe
text
among
to
thethe
as
involved.Andsuch
units
are
alsoexternally
linked
aspectsofthecommunicativesituation,whichincludesthespeakerandtheaddresseewellastheirattitudes,beliefs
and
intentions.Suchrelations,which
a
Canbemarked
or
unmarked,arethebasicfactorsprocessingandinterpreting
ofdiscourserelies
on
discourse.Thecoherence
the
extenttO
whichtherelationsCan
beexactlyconstruedbythe
addresseethroughinference.Suchrelationspre-existintheaddresser’Smind.
1.1
Motivation
and
0bjectives
Untilnow,itiswellrecognizedthattherearetwokindsofcoherence,local
coherenceandglobalcoherence,ofwhich,theformeroneistofindthecoherenceoftheadjacentunits,andthelattertodiscoverthecoherenceofunitsseparatedfromeachotherindistance.Astheauthorhasdiscussedintheprecedingpart,intheviewofcoherence.orientedscholars,tointerpretcoherentrelationswhicharebasicSinceinthispaper,themainadiscoursetosomeextentistoexaminethesemanticelements,bothattheglobalandlocallevel.ajobistohavetentativeanalysisofDMsintheprocessofinterpretingdiscourse,thepaperwillbenarroweddownintotheroleofDMsinthefieldofinterpretingadiscourseintheaccountoftheadjacentpairs.
Usually,forthesakeofeconomy,theaddressorwouldsupposetheexpressionsheplannedtosayareclearenoughwithou.tthenecessity
telladdresseewhere
areandtroubleofexplicatinganylinguisticformstotogo,forexample,(1)Thatwe
againstainthemidstofcrisisisnowwellunderstood.(2)Ournationisatwar,far-reachingnetworkofviolenceandhatred.(3)Oureconomyisbadlyweakened,a
onconsequenceofgreedandirresponsibilitythepartofsome,butalso
aourcollectivefailuretomakehardchoicesandpreparethenationfor
speechinChicagoonnewage(excerptsofObama’SinaugurationJanuary20,2009).
theelaborationofApparently,sentences(2)and(3)are
explicitsentence(1),withoutanyguidance,suchasitmeansthat,that括tosay,inotherwordswhichwouldberedundantinthisdiscourse.
So,somescholarsholdsomeradicalideas,oneofwhomisfromthebuilderoftheRhetoricalStructureTheory(RST),Mann&Thompson,
areimportant,withtheconjunctions①actingoccasionallyItistheimplicitrelationswhich
toconstraintherangeofpossiblerelationalpropositionswhichcarlariseatagivenpointinatext.”
(Mann&Thompson,1986:71)
Theapplicabilityofarelationdefinitionneverdependsdirectlyontheformofthetextbeinganalyzed;thedefinitionsdonotciteconjunctions,tense,orparticularwords?RST
notor,narrowlyspeaking,is①Owingtotherespectofauthor.herethewordconjunctionsisstillused.whichmay
j呶onekindofDMs,whicharenameddifferentlybecauseofthedifferentresearchinterest?2
structuresare,therefore,structuresoffunctionsratherthanstructuresofforms。
(Mann&Thompson,1987:19)
AccordingtotheadvocationsofMann&Thompson.itistheinternalcoherent
arelationthatreallydeterminestheinterpretationof
formsarediscourse,andotherlinguistictrivialfactors.Certainly,itisrighttosomeextent,butitisquestionable.Considerthefollowingexample:
3.Thecuisineremainstheenvyoflocalhotels.
4.Awarmbutunassuminghospitalitystillawaits.
5.[But】now,guestscallenjoytheresultsofextensiverenovations.
6.IncludingthenewlyrefurbishedLeClubPresident...
(Bishop,1993:81)
Here,butisaveryimportantunittointerpretthissegment,justlikeabeacontellingthecaptainwheretogo.AnincitationfromBishopputsitinthisway:
【…】Nowcertainlysignalsarecentchange,butthereisasenseinwhichtheissueof
apotentialin。compatibilityisside—stepped,andlines3--6,withoutbut,tendt.oreadlikesimple
listofthehotel’Spositiveattributes.Thatis,the‘concessive’senseislost.Itmaybe,therefore。thatcertainrhetoricalrelationsdoinfactgenerallyrequire
differentiatedfromaallovertsignal,inordertobesimpleJOINTrelation.
(Bishop,1993:81)
Anditisclearnowthat,somekindofDMs
usedtoarenotoccasionallybmnecessarilyidentifythedefiniterelationsamongclauses.Theexistenceofsuchkindofmarkers,anumberofdifferentwordclasses,e.g.adverbs,connectors,paremheticalexpressions,aswellasparticles,willleadaddresseesintodifferentdirectionstogetwhatthemeaningofadiscourseis,andtheintentionofaddresser.DMs,ifnotnecessary.atleastshouldbeonedecisiveparametertobuilddifferentkindsofcoherencerelations.
toInthispaper,theresearchisconcemedwithDMswhoseprimaryfunctionis
monitortheprocessofinterpretingthecoherencerelationspragmatically
contextualfactorsinthecommunicativesituation3pushandbytheadjusted
Apparently,tointerpretadiscourseismuchbeyondtherecognitionofthepotentialcoherencerelationsbyimplicitcombinationofthesemanticmeaning,andcoherencerelationsCannotbesimplyidentifiedonlythroughtheconstrualofsemanticmeaningof
cognitiveindependentclauses,whichmaymisleadusintoneglectingthesocialand
factorsofdiscourseandthefailureofcommunication.So,thetheoreticalvalueofmypaperreliesonitsdevotiontoprovetheconsiderablyexplanatorypoweroftherelevancetheory.Again,thespecificroleofdiscoursemakersinthewholesystemof
theeffectonlanguage,especially
Throughthe
enrichedtheinterpretationofdiscourse,isalsoacknowledged.analysis,theimproved.teachinganddailyusageofdiscoursemarkerswillbeand
1.2ResearchScopeandMethodology
aAseveryoneknows,threeaspectsCanbetakenintoconsiderationwhen
phenomenonispresented,namely,syntactic,semanticgoeswithoutsayingthatthosethreeaspectsarelinguistandpragmaticperspective.ItalsoapplicabletoDMs.However,theselectedtopicofthispaperisthefunctionsofDMsindiscourseinterpretationmotivation.So,thesemanticandtheandpragmatic
aaspectsareoverwhelminglyinvolved.toTraditionally,tointerpret
themeaningofit.Simply
embeddedinthe
contribution
sometimes
theretodiscourse,anylengthofverbalexpressions,isknowandclassicallyspeaking,thatistherecoveryofpropositionsnotdiscourseinthescopeofsemantics.DMs,ifall,havenothepropositionalmeaning,butdotaketheirrolesinthelinguisticsystem,inevitable.So,aretheyredundantinthescopeofevensemantics?IfSO,areareanyotherevidencestoprovethevalueofthem?And,iftheyperipheralinsingleposition,thendotheyhavesomespecialfunctionswhencombinedlinguisticiterns?withother
With
discoursethedevelopmentofpragmatics,itbecomesconvincingthattointerpretnotademandstherecognitionofseparatedpropositionalmeaning,butanoverallrecognitionofthesemanticandpragmatic
4meaning.However,ifthispointgoes
toDMs,thenisthereanyprobabilitythattheyplay
aasanassistanttobuildthesemanticmeaningof
todiscourse,andcompared、)I,itllthesemanticcontribution。thecontributionprocesspragmatic
outmeaningcouldbemoresignificant?Furthermore,intheofworkingthepragmaticmeaning,couldtherebeanyperiodinwhichDMsdohave
specialcontribution?IfSO,shouldwedeclarethatwehavefoundthemotivationofDMsexistinginthediscourse?
Onawhole,thespecialroleofDMsonthecognitiveinference
aandcommunicationisthekeyissueofthispaper,fortheinterpretationofdiscoursemustgotothe
paperisRT.cognitiveabilityofhumanbeingsandthetheoryinvolvedinthis
Concretely,thereareseveralsub-tasksasfollowing:
1,DoDMshaveaneffectonthesemanticandpragmaticmeaningof
onadiscourse?inthe2,What
scopeofRT?iStheeffectofDMstheostensive.inferentialcommunication
3,WhatisthemotivationofmarkingcertaincoherencerelationswitIlDMsanalyzedbyRT?
SincethekeyinterestisnottogiveacomplicatedanddetailedclassificationonDMsandcoherencerelationwiththeaidofcorpus,themethodwillbeempirical,qualitativeanddeductive.Themaintheoryadopted
oninthispaperisRT,awell-acknowledgedandacceptabletheorybased
inference,whichmustbe
tooltoonethecognition-orientedpragmaticofthehottrendsofthepragmaticresearchandapowerfulinterpretdiscourses.Aftertheanalysisoftheinferentialprocessofdiscourse
awithDMs,thepaperwillpresentframeworktoshowthewayDMsinfluencethe
communicativeprocess.Duetothelackofthedemandedfacilitiesandprocedures,theanalysis
willbeisnotbasedonsomeexperimentsonthecommunicators,andthewholeprocessaapredictablehypothesis.Nevertheless,whattheauthorappliesinthispaperis
cailcomparativelymaturetheory,which
ordertoensuretheevidentialityoftheresearch.Inimprovetheevidentiality,logicalgorithmandsomefigureswillbeshowninthispaper.气
1.3DataCollection
ItgoeswithoutsayingthatDMsdoexistinanylanguage,SOdocoherencerelations.ThetopicofthisthesisistheEnglishDMsindiscourseinterpretation.Inordertohaveaconvincing
scholarsanalysis,thearedataselectedshouldbetypicalandnatural.So,moreandmoreapttofindthenaturallanguageresourcesfromOurdaily
communicationforfearofreducingtheevidentialityoftheirresearch.Inthispaper,mostoftheutterancesarefromdailycommunicationorselectedfromotherscholars.
aBut,fewofthemareartificialforthepurposeofgivingcompleteillustrationofthe
differenceamongdefiniteDMsinthescopeofinference.However,theseartificialresourceswillbeveryvaluableforthetheoreticillustrationandmanyobjectiveandlogicalalgorithmwillappearinthispaper.So,fewartificialresourceswillnotreducethisP印ertoafakedone.
1.4OrganizationoftheThesis
Asforthe
Chapterstructureofthispaper,therewillbefivechapters:reasononeisabriefintroduction,whichmainlytellsreadersthewhythewriterchoosesthistopicanditsvalue,besides,themainstructureofthispaper.
Chaptertwoistheliteraturereview.Inthispart,thecontributionsofrespectablescholarsonDMswillbepresented,whichincludethreeorientations,coherent,pragmaticandcognitive,eachofwhichwillbepresentedwiththeanalysisbyleadingfiguresinthis
thisparttofield.Thedefinitions,classifications,featuresofDMswillbegiveninensuretherationalityandclarityoftheanalysis.
Chapterthreeshowsreadersthetheoreticalfoundationofthispaper.Itbeginswith
essencethediscussionoftwoprevailingcommunicationmodelsofillustratingtheofthe
isinterpretationprocedure.Basedonthisthedifferentiationof
atwolayersofmeaningsintroducedintothispart.Thefollowingpartistogive
whichsketchydescriptionofRTinmanyfactorsareinconnectionwithDMsanddiscourseinterpretation.Afterthat,thecomprehensionprocedureandthehypothesisofDMsindiscourseinterpretationare6
presented.
Chapterfouristheanalysisofthesignificance
exactofDMsintheprocessofdiscourseoninterpretation.TheverybeginningistheeffectofDMsthewaytodigout
explicaturesandimplicaturesofdiscourse.ThesecondpartwillbethedetailedofanalysisandDMsandrelevance,whichincludesthedirectroleof
thirdpartistoDMsoncontext,ostentioninference.The
andgivetwofigurestoshowthecomprehensionprocedure,afunctionsofDMsindiscourseinterpretation.Theforthpartiscasestudytoshowthemotivationofutilizingcertain
hasfoundinthispart.DMs.Thelastpartistosummarizewhattheauthor
Chapterfiveistheconclusiontodemonstratethefindingsandlimitationofthe
ofsuchkindofresearchowingtothelatestanalysis,andalsothebri出future
developmemoflinguistictheoriesandacknowledgedDMsindailycommunication.7
ChapterTwo
LiteratureReview
2.1Introduction
Insuch
as
our
dailylife,whencommunicationhappens,we
youknow,that捃tosay,butandSO
can
getsuchkindofwords,
English,these
well
on.Whenlearning
words
occur
infilms,soapoperas,speeches,eveninformalwritings.Usually,thoseusedasfeedbacks
an
to
expressions
are
thepreceding
sentence
ofspeakers,and
to
at
thesame
timetoexpress
attitude
not
or
giveadditionalmeanings
thefollowing
status
utterances.
oflexicons,
Thoseexpressionsarealthoughtheyarecomplete
inlinewith
any
traditionalgrammatical
usually
derivedfrom
adverbs,conjunctionsandinterjections,eventhe
areDMs.Owing
to
sentences
intraditional
grammar.They
theidiosyncratic
a
featuresandimportanceofthem,theresearchofDMshasturnedintoin
growthindustry
linguistics(Fraser,1999).Inthe
on
pastseveraldecadesofyears,alotofpapershave
a
published
thisissue
to
produce
panoramicandprofound
description.Since
differentscholarsareapt
touse
differenttechnicaltermsfordifferentacademicpurpose
andinterest,morethantwentyYongping
sentence
et
terms
arecoined(fordetailedinformation,seeRan
mostacceptable
a1.,2006).Untilnow,the
and
influential
et
terms
a1.,1
are
connectives(Halliday&Hasan,1976),semanticconjuncts(Quirk
985),
discourseparticles(Schorup,1985;Fischer,2006),discourseconnectives(Blakemore,
1987,1992,2002),DMs(Schiffrin,1
987),pragmaticmarkers(Fraser,1990,1998),
discourse
operators(Redeker,1990,1991),pragmaticoperators(Ariel,1994),cue
phrases(Knott&Dale,1994;Knott&Sanders,1997;Knott,2000;Sanders&
Noordman。2000).The
discourse
meticulousobservationofthose
ofDMsarethehottopic
names
shows
US
thatthe
andpragmaticaspects
a
andscholars
acknowledgethat
theroleofthemistobe
Inthispaper,the
covers
knot
tocongeal
theadjacentclauses.
term
DMsisappliedforitspopularity,especiallyinChina,which
allofthe
technicalterms.Generallyspeaking,as
one
specialandunique
phenomenon,DMshavetheirdistinctivefeatures.Phonologically,DMsareshortand
R
reducedinflseparatetonegroup(Brinton,1996)and
areputatbeginallintonationalcontour(Maschler,1998).Syntactically,they
notthebeginningofsentenceandoptional,nopartofthesyntacticstructureandlooselyconnected.Semantically,DMshavepropositionalmeaning
farasandnotaffecttruthconditionalitymeaning(Brinton,1996).Asstylistics/sociolinguisticsisconcerned,DMsaresaidtobeprevalentinspeech,usedmorebywomenthanbymenandstylisticallystigmatized(Andersen,1998).
Halliday&HasandrewIn1976,themasterpieceCohesioninEnglishwrittenby
almosteveryscholar’Sattention,whoisinterestedintheanalysisofdiscourse.Inthisbook,thewritersdonotgiveUSthetermDMs,nottomentionitsfeaturesand
istreatedseparatelyapplications.Nevertheless,asoneofcohesivedevices,conjunction
asonechapter.Inthisbook,theyclearlysaid,
Conjunctiveelementsarecohesivenotinthemselvesbutindirectly…buttheyexpresscertainmeaningswhichpresupposethepresenceofothercomponentsinthediscourse.
(Halliday&Hasan,2001:226.originalemphasis)
Asforthissentence,atleasttwoimportantimpliedunderstandingsshouldbecapturedinourmind.Itisclearthattheyarecohesiveindirectly.Inotherwords,thesingleexistenceofconjunctionisnotpowerfulenoughtobeasemanticunitpromisingthecohesionofatext,which
onoccurswheretheinterpretationofsomeelementsinthediscourseisdependent
cohesivedevicesdonotthatofanother(Halliday&Hasan,2001).Furthermore,createthemselvesmeanings;theyarecluesusedbyspeakersandhearerstofindthemeaningswhichunderliesurface
ofutterances(Schiffrin,2006).beaThesecondtruthisthatthemeaningconjunctionsistomarkertopresuppose
definiteelementsinthediscourse.The
acceptanceappearanceofdefiniteconjunctionconditionstheandoddnessofpropositionalmeaningsofthefollowingsentences.
Certainly,itiswellknownthat
haveoneconjunctionsdonotequalDMs,butconjunctionsimportantfeature,connectivity,whichisalsooneofthefeaturesofDMs.And
athetaxonomyofconjunctionsbyHallidayandHasanhasfar—reachingeffectonthe
researchofdiscourseconnectives,whichconsistofadditive,adversative,causal
9and
temporal.Amongthosefourtypes,therearetwoelementstobeconsidered
relationstodemarcateexternal
alethesubtypesofthem,externalrelationswhichexistasbetweenphenomenonexpressingexperientialfunctionoflanguage,intemalrelationswhich
internaltOthecommunicationsituationexpressinginterpersonalfunctionoflanguage(Schiffrin,2006).
Severalyearslater,DMsattractedsomeresearchesofpragrnatics.InhisbookPragmatics,LevinsonconsideredDMs
althoughhedidnotasadistinctclassworthyofstudyonitself,giveitaname.Hesuggestedthat
andphrasesinEnglish,andno“…therealemanywordsdoubtmostlanguagesthat
discourse.Examplesaleindicatetherelationshipbetweenanutteranceandtheprior
utterance-initialusagesofbut,therefore,inconclusion,tothe
well,besides,actually,allinall,SO,afterall,and
wordshaveatleastaSOcontrary,still,however,anyway,on.Itisgenerallyconcededthatsuchcomponentofmeaningthatresiststruth-conditionaltreatment…What
thatcontainstheyseemtodois.indicate,ofteninverycomplex
themisaways,justhowtheutteranceresponseto,oracontinuationof,someportionofthepriordiscourse.’’
(Levinson,1983:87?88)
Althoughtheresearchesofthosescholarsare
latestdevelopment.itiSunreasonabletoalittlesuperficialcomparedwiththedoubtonhaveathedevotionoftheirpioneeringwork,whichfoundsthebasementofthefurtherresearches.2.2DeborahSchiffrinandCoherence-basedApproach
In1987,anotherinfluentialscholar,DeboraSchiffrin,publishedaprovokingacademicbooktitledDiscourse
scholarsofcoherence.based
publiclyadmiredMarkerswhichacknowledgesherasoneoftheleadingandfunction.orientedanalysisofDMs.InherbooLshethat‘‰eanalysisofDMsispartofthemoregeneralanalysisofdiscoursecoherence”(Schiffrin,2006:49).Beforetheenumerationanddetailedanalysisofoh.well,and,but,or,so,because,now,then,Y’knowand,mean,shespentlotsofwordsprovidingreadersamodelofdiscoursecoherence,whichincludesexchange10
structure,actions
structure,ideational
structure,participation
frameworkand
informationstageinaccordancewiththethreepropertiesofdiscourseinherview,
structure,meaningandactions,forshebelieves“coherencewoulddepend
speaker’Ssuccessfulintegrationofdifferentverbalmessagein
ona
and
nonverbaldevicestosituate
a
an
interpretive
cues
as
frame,and
a
hearer’Scorrespondingsyntheticabilityto
to
respondtosuch
a
totalityinorder
interpretthatmessage”(Schiffrin,2006:
structures,
22).DMs
ale
indicatorsofthelocationofutteranceswithintheemerging
meaning,and
unitsofa
actionsofdiscourseandsequentiallydependentelementswhichbracket
forthefivedistinctiveplanes,each
one
talk(Schiffrin,2006).As
hasitsown
typeofcoherence:
ExchangeStructure.whichreflectsthe
mechanics
oftheconversationalinterchange
(ethnomethodology)andshowstheresultoftheparticipantturn-takingandhowlhesealtemations
are
relatedtOeachother;
ActionStructure.whichreflectsthesequenceofspeechdiscourse;
actswhich
occur
withinthe
IdeationalStructure,whichreflectscertainrelationshipsbetweentheideas(propositions)found
withinthediscourse,including
cohesiverelations,topic
relations,and
functional
relations;
ParticipationFramework,whichreflectsthewaysinwhichthespeakersandhearersrelateto
one
can
another
as
wellasorientationtoward
utterances;and
management
ofknowledge
InformationState,whichreflectstheongoingorganizationandandmeta-knowledgeasitevolves
over
thecourseofthediscourse.
(Fraser,1999:934)
Giventhefiveplanes,eachDMoftheselectedfromthosefiveaspects,primarilyrelatedto
one
11markersis
analyzedjudging
ofthem.Amongthose11markers。and,
but,orarediscourseconnectivesinherview.Asforthemade
a
analysis
ofthem,Schiffrin
pragmatics.In
conclusionofthemwiththreefactorsof
syntax,semanticsand
theprocessofdiscussion,shepaidmoreattentiontothecontroversyofpragmaticand
11
semanticanalysisofconjunctionbased
context
on
thedifferenceofmeaning-minimalisttreating
as
asource
ofinferencesinteracting、析tlltheminimal
treating
contextasa
meaning
of
conjunctions
and
the
meaning—maximalist
with
provisionofpropositionalmeaning
a
compatible
thereferentialinformationconveyedby
zero,contrastand
conjunction.Andthe
respectively.The
hearer-option
semanticmeaningofand,but,orispragmatic
effect
of
them
is
disjunction
speaker?continue,speaker—return
and
respectively.
Aftertheanalysis,Schiffrinholdsthatmarkersdo
filledwithmarkers
not
havemeaning;itisthe
aroundthe
slotslot.
that
a
putsmeaning
on
themowing
to
theutterances
So,“markersselect
throughthe
content
meaningrelation
form
whateverpotentialmeaningsareprovided
of
talk,andthendisplaythat
relation”(Schiffrin,2006:318original
emphasis).
Atlast,sherepresentedfourspecificconditionsofmarkers,
tobesyntacticallydetachablefromasentence;
tobecommonaltyusedininitialpositionofanutterance;tOhavearangeofprosodiccontours;
tObeabletOoperateatbothlocalandgloballevelofdiscourse.
discourse,and
on
different
planes
of
(Schiffrin,2006:328)
Thoseconditionsarecompatible
with
thecharacteristicsprovidedbySchourup
(1999),connectivity,optimality,non—truth-conditionality,weakclauseassociation,initiality,oralityandmulti-categoriality.
Apparently,DMsintheviewofSchiffrinarepassiveandfunctional.Themeaning
ofDMsaredeterminedbythe
utterancesaround
them,andthesemantic
tothe
meaning
speaker
of
themcouldbeempty,eventhepragmaticmeaningareorientedhearer
and
without
connectiontothelanguageitself.So,theinformationconveyedbyDMs
isempty.
Inthe
beginning
of1990s,Redeker(1990,1991),whoisalsointerestedintherole
12
of
DMs(she
callsDMsdiscourse
operator)to
cohere
a
text,stronglyopposedsome
to
ideasprovidedbySchiffrin.Inherpapers,sheattemptedpragmatic
combinethesemanticand
analysis
ofDMsandalsotheinteractiveeffectofcognition
core
and
context,
to
suggestingthat‘"themeaningshouldspecifythemarker’Sintrinsiccontribution
thesemanticrepresentationthatwillconstrainthecontextualinterpretationofthe
utterance”(Redeker,1991:1164).As
illustratedrespectivelyasfollowing:
forwhatDMsanddiscourse
coherenceare,she
“…awordorphrase…thatisutteredwiththeprimaryfunctionofbringingtothelistener's
attention
a
particularkindoflinkageoftheupcomingutterancewiththeimmediatediscourse
context.Anutteranceinthisdefinitionis
an
intonationallyaridstructurallybounded,usually
clausalunit.’’
“…allowforimplicitcoherencerelationsandforthesimultaneousrealizationofsemantic
and
pragmaticcoherencelinks,irrespectiveoftheirbeingsignaledby
a
DM.’’
(Redeker,1991:1168)
DifferentfromSchiffrin,theanalysisofRedekerendowsforthereistheupcoming
core
DMs晰t11an
activestatus,
meaninginternalizedintoDMs.111efunctionofthemistolinkthe
context,butDMsstilldo
littletothecoherenceof
utteranceswiththe
discourse.
ThescholarsmentionedabovetreatedDMsastheirprimary
and
soleresearchtopic.
cue
Differentfromthem,therearesomeotherscholarswhomentionedDMs(theycall
phrases)toparsethediscoursewiththeultimategoalofgenerating
a
coherentdiscourse
naturally,includingHobbs(1985),Mann&Thompson(1986,1987),Hovy(1990),
Sanderset
a1.(1992),Knott&Dale(1994),Taboada(2006).Among
nature
them,researchers
suchthat‘'the
forthe
haveaddressedthe
content
ofrelationsamongthe
sentences
of
atext
ofonesentencemightprovideelaboration,circumstances,or
explanation
contentof
another”(Knott&Dale.1994:35).As
relations(between60%and70%of
13
fortherelationbetweenDMsand
thatthereare
a
coherencenumberof
relations(rhetoricalrelations),Taboada(2006)holds
thetotal,on
hi【gh
not
average)which
are
signaled.So,DMsarejust
one
peripheralelementoftheresearches.
scopeof
Admittedly,thepioneeringworkofthisgroupbringsDMsunderthe
coherence,whichrevealsthefunctionsofDMsinorganizingcomplete
a
coherentdiscourse.The
a
understanding
oftheirwork
can
providereaderswith
wholepictureof
a
coherentdiscourseincludingDMs.However,astheoverwhelmingoralfeatureofDMs,thisapproachhasAgaill,thereaders
no
pointrevealingthepragmaticfactors
clearofthesubtypesofDMs.
and
syntacticstatusofthem.
arenot
2.3BruceFraserandGrammatical-pragmaticApproach
Asanotherimportantbeholderinterestedinhisown
andscholarofDMs,BruceFraserseemstobemore
term,pragmatic
markers,eventhoughlaterheacceptstheterm
DMs.
In1996,hepublished
a
far-reachingarticlePragmatic
Markers.InCan
thispaper,he
assumesevery
sentence
has
a
directmessagepotential,which
beeliminated,added,includestwoparts,
distortedinthe
concrete
context.Andthemeaningof
on
sentence
propositionandmoodmarkers.Based
thisdifferentiation,therearefourkindsof
messages,namelybasicmessageusingpropositionasitscontent,commentarymessage
providing
a
comment
on
thebasicmessage,parallel
messagesignaling
all
entire
separatemessagefromthebasicsignaling
a
andcommentarymessages,anddiscoursemessage
to
messagespecifyinghowthebasicmessageisrelated
one
theforegoing
discourse.DMs,as
subtypeof
pragmatic
markers,whichincludestopicchange
markers,contrastivemarkers,elaborativemarkersandinferentialrelationshipbetweenthethe
utterances
markers,signalthe
on
adjacent
pairsandprovide
informationto
theaddresseehow
linkedbyDMstobeinterpreted.theroughillustration
on
Based
give
a
on
DMs,anotherpaperWhat
are
DMS7.intended
to
detailed
and
deepunderstandingofDMsWaspublishedin
to
1999.Themost
importantcontributionofthispaperis
give
USacanonical
form
as<S1.DM+S2>固to
。In2006.FraserchangedDMintolecxicalexpression,andthecanonicalformisS1一LE+S2
14
showtheutteranceslinkedbyDMs.Followingthestandardone,therearesomevariations,<S1,DM+S2>,<DM+S2,SI>③,whicharerespectivelyshowninfollowingexamples:
(1)Jackplayedtennis.AndMaryreadabook.
(2)Maryisangrywithyoubecauseyouranoverhercatwithyourcar.(3)Whilesheispregnant,Martinwillnottakeaplane(adoptedfromthispaper).Apparently,theformprovidedisnotpowerfulenoughtoillustratetheessenceofdiscourselinkedbyDMs.Underlyingthesuperficialform;therearestillsomeotherconcems,suchasthemeaningofthediscourse.Simplythinking,thereisthecombinationofutterancemeaningandDMs’meaning.However,itisnot,forthereisstillacontroversyaswhetherDMshavemeaning,andifthereismeaning,themeaningismonosemyorpolysemywithacoremeaning.
In2006,inTowards口.TheoryofDMs,Fraserprovidedmoreillustrationonit,andspecifically,eachDMhasaCOREMEANINGofageneralnaturewithvariousmeaningnuancestriggeredasafunctionof(i)thecoremeaningofthespecificDM,(ii)theinterpretationsofS2andS1,and(iii)thecontext,linguisticandotherwise.So,thereisonlyaninteractiverelationbetweenDMsandthediscourseslotsinwhichtheyOCCur:ontheonehand,DMsforcecertainrelationshipbetweenthesegmentsS2andS1byvirtueoftheCoreMeaningofthem,whileontheotherhand,thecontext,bothlinguisticandnon—linguistic,elaboratesandenrichestherelationshipbasedonthedetailspresented.Inotherwords,itistheCoreMeaningandcontextthatbuildtheoverallfunctionofDMsintheutterance,andDMsshouldbeconsideredasapragmaticclass.So,theexistenceofDMsdoeshaveallimpactonthefunctionofthewholesentence,eventhoughitisnotnecessarytocommandaDMtocreateacoherencerelationofutterances.And
DMsareexpressionsdrawnfromthesyntacticclassesofconjunctions,adverbials,orprepositionalphrases,havethesyntacticpropertiesassociatedwiththeirclassmembership,@AsfortherelationofmessagesexpressedbySIandS2.therearefourtypesaccordingtothepaperwrittenin2006.namely,a)Elaboration;b)Contrast:c)Inference;ord)Temporality.
have
a
meaningwhichisprocedural,andhave
CO—oecurrence
restrictionswhich
arg
in
complementarydistributionwiththeirconceptualcounterparts.
(Fraser,1999:946)
Havingprovidedtheformand
meaning,Frasergivesreadersthemainclassof
DMs:
DMswhichrelatemessages
a.Contrastivemarkersh
C011ate同m批俗
…
▲
c?hferen。1a】marke璐d.
l
I
DMswhichrelatetopics
(Fraser,】999:946)
TheclassificationbyFraserdisplaysthedichotomy
on
messagesandtopics,which
permits
and
thepossibilityofabsorbing
newsubtypesinthisscalardivision.Itisvaluable
thatFraserhas
also
the
admitted
theCoreMeaningofDMs
still
and
theproceduralfunctionofthem,
thatwhat
the
cognitive
classificationsofthem.Itis
unclear
contributionsofDMSareindiscourses.
2.4DanielBlakemoreandRT-principledResearch
As
one
ofthemostinfluentialtheory,RTisutilizedto
analyzemany
linguistic
tomake
a
concerns,oneofwhichiSDMs.However,forBlakemore,themaininterestiS
research
on
discourse
connectives(DC)whichare
expressions
thatconstrainthe
interpretationofthe
utterances
thatcontainthembyvirtueoftheinferential
fromthecoherence-based
connections
approach,
even
theyexpress(Blakemore,1thisgroupdeniedquestioned
the
the
987).Different
analysis
significanceofthevalueofcoherencerelations,andofthe
use
primitivecognitiveentities
coherencerelations.In
1992,
Blakemorefurther
to
advocated
thatspeakersmay
thelinguistic
form
ofhis
utterance
guidethe
sentence
interpretationprocessandthespeakerwouldconstraintheinterpretationofeitherbyintonation
or
the
bythe
use
of
DMs.Therefore,DMsCan
constrain
theutteranceinterpretationprocess.AndtheusageofdifferentDMsCanberelevanttotheinformationconveyedbyanutteranceindifferentways.
Itmayallowthederivationofacontextualimplication(e.g.,SO,therefore,too,also);Itmaystrengthenallexistingassumption,byprovidingberetevidenceforit(e.g.afterall,moreoveLfurthermore);
Itmaycontradictasexistingassumption(e.g.however,stillnevertheless,but)Itmayspecifytheroleoftheutteranceinthediscourse(e.g.,anyway,incidentally,bytheway,finally).
(Blakemore,1992:138-141)
So,thechoiceofdifferentDMsinthesameadjacentpairwillcausedifferentexplanations,forexample:
(4)a:TomcanopenBill’Ssafe
b:Heknowsthecombination
Asfortherelationbetween口andb.thereareatleasttwointerpretationsmarkedbytwodifferentDMs(Blakemore,1996).
(5)a:TomcallopenBill’Ssafe
b:So,heknowsthecombination
(6)a:TomCanopenBill’Ssafe
b:缈Prall,heknowsthecombination
Apartfromthecapacitytoexternalizethepotentialrelationsbetweensentences,anotheroutstandingfeatureofDMsinthefieldofcognition—orientedistherelationbetweenDMsandthecontext(Rouchota,1996),forexample
(7)(Context:Peterisbackfromjogging)
Mary:Soyou’retryingtokeepfit
ItisnodoubtthattheconstrainingeffectandtheabilitytolinkthesentencetothecontextaretheprimarysignificancetobeincludedinthediscussionofDMs.ButthewayDMsconstrainstheillustrationandtheexactmeaningofDMsareanothertwovaluableissueswhichdrawtheattentionofthosescholars.
2.4.1TheConceptual/ProceduralDistinctionand
Inthelinguisticsystem,therecomparativelywords
or
are
DMs
whichproduce
a
certainwords
orsentences
exact
conceptinthemindofthereceiver.Asthecounterpart,someother
berepresented
aus
sentencescannot
concepts.ForBlakemore,DCs,豁onepart
a
ofDMs,differentfromthelexicalexpressionswhichhaveonly
a
conceptual
to
meaning,have
manipulatethe
procedural
meaning,which
consistsofinstructionsabouthow
conceptualrepresentationofthe
According
to
utterance.(Blakemore,1987,1992,2002).
of
the
analysis
Blakemore(1987),the
conceptual
meaning
is
truth-conditionalandproceduralmeaningis
non-truth--conditional.However,Wilson
andSperber(1993)did
theirminds,thereare
a
job
to
findtheintertwiningrelationamongthefourfactors.In
a
fourtypesofinformationof
abouttheaffairsitdescribes
sentence:propositional
thevariousspeech
and
it
illocutionarylnformation
intends
representationstobe
Based
on
and
acts
toperform,representationalandcomputational—information
informationabouthow
tO
aboutthe
manipulated,and
manipulatethem.
thisdefinition,throughtheanalysisoftherelatedconceptsofencoding,
providedfourtypesofwordsthat
Call
inference,implicatureandexplicature,they
differentiatedconceptualpropositionconceptual
be
withrespect
to
thefourtypesofinformation.Contentwords
are
and
truth-conditional,whichencodeconcepts
bythe
and
of
areconstituentsofthe
adverbials
expressed
utterance.Various
types
sentence
are
are
of
andnon-truth—conditional,whichencodeconceptsand
constituents
not
thepropositionexpressedbutofthehigher-levelexplicatures.Discourseconnectivessuch
aS
so
and簖era//are
Oil
procedural
and
non?truth—conditional,whichencode
are
proceduralconstraints
truth.conditional.
The
demarcation
implicatures.Personalpronouns
bothproceduraland
held
by
Blal(emore
promotestheoverallunderstanding
of
discoursewhichcertainlyincludesconceptualandproceduralmeaning.Asthestandard
todifferentiatethosetwo
meanings,representation
andencyclopedicknowledgeare
adopted.If
an
expression
carl
berepresentedandenrichtheencyclopedicknowledge,it
1R
willbe
a
conceptualoFle,if
not,a
to
proceduralone.Thedifferenceisemphasizeit:
all
SO
importantthat
Blakemoreproducedthesewords
Inprinciple,itispossibleforexpressionclassifiedas
a
a
discourse
marker【i.e.from
a
non-RTpointofview】toencodeeither
concept
ora
procedure.Accordingly,itisessentialfor
anystudyoftheseexpressionsconductedwithintherelevancetheoreticprogrammetoinclude
testsfordistinguishingconceptualmeaningfromprocedural
meaning.
(Blakemore,2002:82)
Thislinguisticdemarcationisapparentlyveryimpressing,andthenthequestionishow
to
recognizeit.Blakemoreprovidesthefollowingtestsfor
distinguishing
the
proceduralfromtheconceptual
meaning(2002):it’Sdifficulttoparaphrasewordswhich
forthem;theyalmosthave
beutilizedtighter
tO
encodeproceduralmeaningandfindsynonymy
no
judgments
synonymouscounterpartsinotherwordclasses;they
cannot
form
semanticallycomplexexpressions;andthereis
no
encodingconceptwhich
Can
be
inferentiallydevelopedtoobtain
.Thereclassified
anyexplicatures.Herconclusionisthat.
ofthesemanticsofexpressionswhichhavebeen
cannotbeaunitaryaccount
as
DMs【...].Somerumouttoencodeconcepts,andcanbe
more
treated[...]alongside
as
expressionssuch∞coffee
or,perhaps
accurately.alongsideexpressionssuch
a
unfortunately[…]Othersanalysis.
turnouttoencodeprocedures,andas
resultresiststraightforward
(Blakemore,2002:88)
Apparently,theclassificationofconceptual
and
procedural
to
meaning
acknowledges
thepragmaticcontributionofDMs,especiallyDCs
intention
indicatethecommunicative
and
otherpragmaticeffects.However,theresearchofDMsmustbebeyond
thescopeofDCs.
2.4.2
MeaningsofDMs
meaning
a
Now,itisstillcontroversialthatthe
different
sentence
ofDMsispolysemousadoptedin
groups
or
monosemouswith
basic(core)meaning
that
carl
be
contextualized.Asoneimportantgroup,RT-basedscholarshadastrongbeliefthattheyaremonosemous,andtheSO-calleddifferentmeaningsarejustthevariantsofthecore(basic)meaningindifferentcontexts,justlikethis:
Basicmeaning
PrincipleofRelevance
CmlCm2Cm3Cm4CmE
Figure1RelationshipbetweenbasicandcontextualmeaningsinRT(Cm=contextualmeaning).
(Borderia,2008:1419)
Thisfigureclearlyshows.thatthecontextualizedmeaningofDMsis
ismodifiedandenrichedindifferentcontextswhichendowavariantwhichDMswithdifferentmeanings,andtheprincipleofrelevanceistheconstant.
2.5Summary
Owingtothedevotionsofthefoundersandpathbreakers
ononthistopic,theresearchhasdevelopedfromtheside-effectsofDMs
theconcem
onondiscoursecoherenceandpragmatictothecognitiveunderstandingofthemselves,furthermore,theirfunctionsdiscoursesfromtheperspectiveofcognition.AnditiswellrecognizedthatDMsarenotanindependentcategoryoflexicons,becausetheyareovedapped、】 ̄,ith
evenconjunctions,adverbials,interjectionsandclauses.SincethisthesisistolocateDMsinthefield
toofdiscourseinterpretation,theoverlappingissuedoesnotcome
thispaper-However,as
aatheresearchscopeofbasementofthefollowingwriting,itisstillnecessarytohaveauthor,DMsarethoseexpressionsroughdefinitionandclassification.Forthe
20
indicatingthewaytoexpand
functions
classicalatadiscourse,notdescribingitandrevealingthepragmaticnothediscourselevel,usuallygrammaticalconfining.Anditenvelopestheonesandalsoreformulationmarkerssuchas,that西tosay,and
utterancesconjunctionsusedtoindicatethepragmaticmeaningsofthosethattheyconnect.
Afterreadingthegreatbooksandpapersbythosegreatscholars,itisapparentthattheoutstandingrolesofDMsarerelatedtopragmatics,constrainingtheunderstanding
aofdiscourses.Andthelatestdevelopmentofpragmaticshasdonelotindiscovering
DMsincognition,andhasacknowledgedtheproceduralmeaningofDMs,buttheanalysisofDMsisstable.So,toreanalyzeDMsintheperspectiveofdiscourseinterpretationisstillnecessarytoknowthedynamicaspectofDMsandtheireffectsonexpandingdiscourseswhicharecomposedofcoherencerelations.
ChapterThreeTheoreticalFoundation
3.1DiscourseasCommunicationanditsMeaning
AstheauthorhasshowninChaptertwo,alotofscholarshaveshowntheirinterestintheusageofDMs,andalsodifferenttheorieshavebeenadoptedtofindthefeaturesandclassificationsofDMsandtheirspecialroleininputsandoutputsofdiscourse.So,itisverychallenging
totohaveapenetratingviewonthislong—termhottopic.However,thesanlelinguisticphenomenon,usually,therecouldbedifferentanglestobeconsidered,evenwiththesametheory.
With
orthedevelopmentoflinguistictheories,thediscourse,nomatterasamonologueconversation,istreatedcommunication.Thedifferencerelies
oronwhetherthetohearerispostulatedinthemindofspeakerdoesappearinthecommunication
tobeaspontaneousreactor.So,thetheoryusuallyconfinedthecommunicationisalsoavery
efficienttooltobeappliedtoanyformofdiscourses.
Themethodologytheauthorisusingisthecognitiveapproachbasedontherecentlydevelopedpragmaticframework,RTinitiatedbySperber
modifiedin1995andperfectedcontinuouslybythescholarswhoandWilsonarein1986interestedinthistheory.RTisageneraltheoryofcommunicationbasedoncognitiveprinciples.Themotivationofadoptingthistheoryisforitspowertorevealthecognitiveabilityintheprocessofcommunication.Aswhattheauthorhassaid,theproceduralmeaningandconstrainingeffectofDMsareevidentinthefieldofscholarship.But,toillustratetheexactrolesofDMsintheprocessofinterpretingdiscourseisnotclear.AccordingtoRT,utterancesareinputstobepremisesofinferentialprocesseswhichaffectthe
accountcognitiveofenvironmentofthehearer.Inthisofcommunication,theinterpretation
onutterancesisnotmerelyamatteroflinguisticdecodingbutheavilyreliesinference.
SUCCESSAndthiscognition?orientedapproachaboutthepragmaticinference
communicationismuchdifferentfromthe
emphasizestheroleofinference.andtheofclassical/neo-Griceantheory,whichalso
Tohave
an
overfll
analysis
ofdiscourse
commands
manyponderings
over
the
discourseitself.Inthe
greatbookDiscourseAnalysisbyBrownandYule,thewriters
to
range
fromthemicroaspectofreferencethemacroaspectofthe
a
structure
aidedby
differenttheories.Thelinguistictheorieshavedevelopedinto
mixturewithotherfields
includingpsychology,sociology,especiallythedevelopmentofcognitionsciencebywhichscholarsattemptstodiscovertheconsiderationisthe
core
to
essence
oflanguage.Andthesinglesemantic
a
issuebutnotadequateenoughtointerpretknowtheof
exact
discourse.
a
Thisthesisaimsdiscourse
is
a
roleofDMsininterpreting
which
discourse,and
developed
a
kind
communication,for
thetheory
for
communicationisadopted.Besides,sincethemain
inthescopeofrelatedfieldsis
concern
ofthisthesisissilllimited
on
linguisticaspects
not
forthespecialtyofDMs,theconsideration
other
included.Concretely,itisthecognitivepragmaticsignificanceof
to
DMsindiscourseinterpretationthatdrawstheattentionoftheauthor..Owing
isnecessary
to
this,it
understandthemodelsof
communication,differentconceptsofmeaning
foundations
tO
andthebasicframeworkofRT,allofwhichwillbetreatedasthe
fulfill
theexpectationsoftheauthor.
3.1.1TwoBasicInterpreting
ModelsofCommunication
human
inthe
Communicationare
worldofbeesareverydifferentways
to
everywhereinOUrdailylife,notonlyintheworldof
beings,butalsointheworldofotherspecies.Asweallknow,thedancingstyles
meaningfuland
provoking.Differentdancing
stylesshow
findtheirdestination,whichisthetraditional
intothe
and
influentialmodelof
communicationtransferred
meaning.In
the
communicationofhuman
beingsbythescholars
whoareinfluencedbysemioticmeaningdescription.Thatistheencoding-decoding
account
ofthismodel,themessagecommunicatedintheexchangeof
or
communicatorsisfirstlyencodedinthespeaker,thenthroughthemediumofverbalnon—verbalbehaviorsrecognizedbythehearerwhodecodesthosebehaviorsgetswhatthespeakerintendstoexpress.Obviously,suchkindofmodelis
23
and
atlast
an
ideal
one,
forweallknowthenaturalcommunicationdoes
not
simplyandtotallyconsistofthe
processofencodinganddecodingsignals.Instead,toexactlymeansisOn
the
nota
know
whatthespeaker
computerizedprocessingwhichis
natural
communication
not
affectedbyanyexternalfactors.definitely
more
complex
SO
contrary,the
isand
on,
cognition-consuming,owingtothedifferent
targets,intentions,contexts,and
to
totallyspeaking,thepragmaticfactors.Andthestrongestoppositionisthatencodingmeaningisonlyimportantis
to
one
knowthethemore
stepofknowing
whatthe
speakersays,and
knowwhatis
implicatedintheviewofGrice(1989).
So,theideaofinferentialmodeliswellacceptedinthefieldoflinguisticresearch.Asfar
as
thismodelisconcerned,to
know
themeaningof
an
utteranceinthenatural
communication
contextsto
demands
theinferentialcapacityincommunicatorswiththeaidof
providetheinferentialpremises
and
thencalculatestheinferentialconclusions.
Themore
correct
understandingofspeakersisnot
is
to
just
to
know
whattheinformationis;themutual
important
knowwhattheintention
is.The
a
understanding
of
communicators’intention
iStheforemostfactortohavesuccessfulcommunication.
MostDMs,astheauthorhasdescribed,areenriched谢t}lproceduralmeaningswhich
couldbemoreprofoundlyunderstoodinthefieldofinferentialmodelcompared、析mtheencoding—decodingmodel,forDMsdo
not
comprise
anyconceptual
meanings.
pragmatics,
are
And,withthedevelopmentofpragmatics,especiallythecognitive
inferenceismuchbeyondthetraditionallogicalinference.Nowadays,therewell—recognizedwaysconversational
Deductive
to
threeand
doinference:deductiveinference,elaborative
inference
inference(Cummings,2007).inference
isbased
on
formal
logic
and
call
bedividedintoimmediate
andmediateinference,thelatterofwhichismorerelatedtopragmaticinference,which
hasbeen
acknowledged
bySperber
andWilson(1995),for
causescancer
example,
Premise:
Allcigarettesmoking
Conclusion:Allcigarettesmoking
causes
death
Elaborativeinferenceincludestheabilityoflogicandencyclopedicknowledge,whichprovidestheshortageofinputsoflanguageneededasthepremiseoflogicinference,forexample:
WaSwarm.Thepicnicsupplies(8)Maryunpackedthepicnicsuppliesfromthetrunk.Thebeer
containedbeer.
Here,thebridgingofbeer
Thelastoneandpicnicsuppliesistheresultofelaborativeinference.istheconversationalinferenceraisedbyGrice(1989)withthepurposeoffindingtheimplicatedmeaning
toofdailycommunication,whobuiltthecooperativeorprinciplesoffourmaxims
implicatures.beobeyedfloutedtoproducetheconversational
Apparently,thepurposeoftwomodelsis
whatiSthemeaning?toknowthemeaningofspeaker.Then,
3.1.2TwoLayersofMeaningsinDiscourse
asThediscoursetreatedthecommunicationcommandstheinferentialmodelof
ainterpretation.Whateverthemodelisfavored,itisdefinitethattheinterpretationof
discoursecommandsthemeaningconstrualofthat
meaninginvolvesbothdiscourse,andthediscussionofsemanticsandpragmatics.Comparedwiththemeaninginsemantics,themeaninginpragrnaticsismoredynamicindifferentcontexts
intentions.Usually,thepurposeofpragmaticsis
toandconcernedwithcommunicationnottofindtheexplicitmeaningbutthemeaningbehindit.So,itisveryimportant
betweenexplicitandimplicitmeanings,andhowtofindoutknowthedifferencetheimplicitmeanings.
The
byverybeginningofthedifferentiationofmeaning,nandmeaningNisintroducedGrice(1967),in
steptootherwordswhatissaidandwhatisimplicated.Andwhatissaidisthefirstknowwhatisimplicated.Later,owingtotheinterestofdaily
communication,whatissaidisdevelopedintoexplicaturesimplicaturesandwhatisimplicatedandthejobofpragmaticsistofindtheconversationalimplicatures.Now,thelatestdevelopmentofexplicaturesandimplicaturesisfromcognitivepragmatics.In25
Sperberand
Wilson’S
an
view,the
condition
ofexplicitnessis
a
that
an
assumption
communicatedby
utterance
Uisexplicitifandonlyifitis
developmentofalogical
formencodedbyU.“Thesmallertherelativecontributionofthecontextualfeatures,themoreexplicittheexplicaturewillbe,andIn
inversely"(Sperber&Wilson,1
995:182).
otherwords,theexplicaturesmainlydevelopfromthelanguage
itselfandthe
inferential
implicaturesinvolvetheelementsofthedevelopmentofencodedby
an
one
context.So,“anr-explicature㈤isan
representation
on
or
oftheincompleteconceptual
Yah,2007:1
logicalformsview,nowthe
utterance”(Huang89).Basedand
this
r-explicaturesinvolve
are
dividedintobasicr-explicatures
higher?levelr-explicatureswhich
higher-Ievejdescription,thedescriptionsofpropositionalattitude,speechact
andothercomments.Asan
illustration,considerthisexampletakenfromHuangYah
(2007:194):
(9)Evidently,FredericktheGreatentertainedVoltaire
atSanssouci.
a_itisevidentthatFredericktheGreatentertainedVoltaireatSanssouci.
b.ThespeakerstronglybelievesthatFredericktheGreatentertainedVoltaireatSanssouci.
Here,both口andb
are
thehigherexplicaturesof(9).
are
Asthecounterparttoexplicatures,implicaturespragmatics.Sincethere
ale
another
importantitemfor
twoways
to
discoverexplicaures,decoding
andinference,
to
nowitiswellacknowledgedthatinferenceistheonly
demandedtooldiscover
r-implicaurtes,whichinRTarecalculatedthroughimplicatedpremisesconclusions,includingthestrong
and
implicated
and
weakr-implicaturesrespectively.Thefollowing
to
exampletaken
r-implicatures:
formHuangYan(2007)isshowtheinferentialprocessofunveiling
(10)Carsalesman:Areyouinterestedintest-driving
a
RollsRoyce?
expensive
car.
John:I'mafraidI'mnotinterestedintest—drivingPremise:
ARollsRoyceis
an
any
expensive
car.
@R—implicaturesrefertotheimplicautresinRTbyHuangYan
26
Conclusion:Johnisnotinterestedintest-drivingaRollsRoyce.The
utterancesanalysisdemandsofthisadialogueclearlyshowsthattoknowr-implicaturesofcomparativelycompleteinferentialprocessincludingpremisesandconclusions.
Then,whatisthedifferencebetweenthestrongandweakr-implicatures?Indailycommunication,thehearersareapttoinferwhatthespeakersintendtomeanwhentheysaysomethingtothem.Sometimes,theinferenceiSconsistent、Vitllthesometimesoverintention,andevaluationwillhappen.Technically,strongr-implicaturesarethose
tor-implicatuerswhoserecoveryisessential
Byunderstandthespeaker’Sintendedr-implicatuersmeaning.isnotcontrast,“weak
tor-implicaturesthearethosewhoserecoveryessential
beoneunderstandspeaker’Sintendedmeaning,becausether-implicauresmayofawidearrayofequallypossibler-implicaturesengenderedbyanutterance’’
Wilsonand(HuangYah,2007:196).Now,considerthefollowingexampletakenfrom
Sperber(2004).
(11)Peter:DidJohnpaybackthemoneyheowedyou?
Mary:No.heforgottogo
色tothebank.JohnwasunabletOrepayMarythemoneyheOWeSbecauseheforgottogotothe
financialinstitution.
JohnmayrepayMarythemoneyheoweswhenhenextgotothefinancialinstitution.
Mary’Sreplymaygiverise
strongestonetOmanyimplicatures,andevenclearly,theillustration口isthenottobeinferred,andbthefollowingC…arestrongenoughtobetheconvincing,maybepossibleimplicatures.
Definitely,theexistenceanddifferentchoicesofDMsmakeanimpactonthemeaning
DMs
theonconstrual,bothonexplicaturesandimplicatures.Inaddition,theimpactoftOdiscourseinterpretationannouncesthenecessityknowthewholeprocessofcommunicationinRT,whichaims
totoworkouttheentireprocessintermsofacognition.AndDMsareassumedplaygreatroleatthecriticalmomentofthe27
process.
3.2TheCommunicationintheScopeofCognition
Actually,theprincipleofrelevancehasbeenmentionedinthemaximsofGrice,buthetreatsitasoneconstituent.DuetotheeffortsofSperberand
overWilson,thisprincipleisupgradedtothesingledoctrinerulingthehumancommunication.In
dailycommunication,usually,boththeaddressor
toproduceaandaddresseeexpectthecounterpartrelevantinputguaranteedbythecognitionandcommunicationtendencyofhumanbeings.
(1)HumancognitiontendstObegeared
(2)Everytothemaximizationofrelevanceactofostensivecommunicationcommunicatesapresumptionofitsown
optimalrelevance
(Sperber&Wilson,1995:260)
Thefirstprincipleshowsthatitistheintuitionof
acceptthemostrelevantinformation.Inother
tendtohumanbeingstoproduceandwords,humanbeingspsychologicallypickoutthemostrelevantinformationfromthepoolofstimulus.Themoment
awefindthe
feedbackrelevantstimulus,theprocessofinferencestopsandthetimetogiveforthesecondprinciple,theostensiveinformations
tobegins.Asfromcommunicatorspresupposethatitistheoptimal
SUCCESSrelevantpickedoutpromisetheofthisturnofcommunication,whichisensuredbythepresumptionofoptimalrelevanceasfollowing.
Theostensivestimulusisrelevantenoughforittobeworththeaddressee’Sefforttoprocessit.
Theostensivestimulusisthemostrelevantonecompatiblewiththecommunicator’Sabilitiesandpreferences.
(Sperber&Wilson,i995:270)
Actually,theconditionsshow
beforethebeginningoftheturnUSthecognitivepreparationofcommunicatorsofcommunication.The
2Rcommunicatorshouldmake
sure
theutteranceheplanned
to
produceisvaluable
to
catchtheattentionand
worth
computingbytheaddresseewiththeguidanceofcontextual
factors.Meanwhile.the
utterance
isthebestchoiceforthecommunicator,nothiding,notoverblowing.Onlyin
thisway,couldthebalanceofprocessingeffortsandcontextualeffectsbeachieved.
Every
utterance
ofthe
communication
assumestobethemostrelevant
one
principledbythetendencyandpresumption.However,thosewould
be
assumedrelevant
ensure
stimulus
adjustified
in
theprocessofthefactors
ofcommunicationto
to
thesuccessful
are
communication.As
one
promotethe
essence
adjustification,contexts
anotherimportantfactorinRT,fort11eyrevealtheofthistheory
ofcognition—orientedaspect
and
havebeen
a
crucialtopicofpragmatics.Generallyspeaking,thereare
twocontrastiveideastocontexts,staticit
and
dynamiccontexts.Asforthestatic
context,
means
theelementsof
contextare
pre—conditionedwithoutanychangefromthevery
.
beginningto
theendingofcommunicmion.Onthecontrary,theelementsofthe
arerebuilt、析ththeflowingofthe
at
dynamic
on
context
communicationand
moment.Inthe
have
an
effect
theunderstandingofthecommunication
is
aset
any
account
ofRT,the
context
put
assumptions.Whencommunicating,thespeakersandhearersalways
someassumptionsintheirmindbeforethebeginningofcommunication,whichCan
of
as
beselectedAsforRT,
thecontextof
communicationandberebuiltthroughthecommunication.
subsetofthehearer’Sassumptionofthe
Acontextis
a
psychologicalconstruct,a
sense
world....Acontextinthisenvironment
or
isnotlimitedtoinformationabouttheimmediatephysical
theimmediatelyprecedingutterance.
(Sperber&Wilson,1995:15)
TheexpressionclearlyshowsthatthecontextinRTisphysicalenvironmentoutsidethecomprehendthe
nota
simpleassemblyoftheutilizedbyhearersto
communication.The
context
communicationcouldcomefromtheexplicitandimplicitmeaningsof
utterance,encyclopedicknowledge,culture,memory,and
a
theprecedingandfollowing
SO
on.Cognitivelyspeaking,thecontextis
cognitiveenvironment,a
set
offactsthat
:!Q
are
manifest
to
thecommunicator,and‘‘afactiSmanifestto
at
all
individual
ata
given
timeifandonlyifheiscapablerepresentation
as
thattimeofrepresentingitmentallyandacceptingits
true
or
probably
true”(Sperber&Wilson,1995:39).In
otherwords,exclusively
thefactshouldproducecontextualeffects.Ofcourse,thosefactsdoconsistoflinguisticgoes
to
not
items,and
someothernon-verbalsignals
an
are
alsoqualified.Ifit
a
an
utterance,a
speakerwhointends
utterance
to
beinterpretedin
particular
to
waymustalsoexpectthehearertosupplybebe
acontext
whichallowsthatinterpretation
recovered(Sperber&Wilson,1995).In
all
thissense,DMsshouldbeveryimportantto
to
indicatortotellwhatthecontextiSandhow
ON
manipulateandbuildthe
context.
Based
theprecedingdiscussion,alinguisticformmustproducestimuliwhich
a
arecomposedofassumptionsostensiveinostensivestimuluscouldbeassumptionis
a
a
context,butitisstilldoubtfulhowthe
relevantone.ForSperber
andWilson,therelevance
of
an
comparativeconcept,thedegreeofwhichisdynamicaffectedbytwo
factors:processingefforts
andcontextual
effects.
a
Extentcondition1:锄assumptionisrelevantineffectsinthiscontext
are
contexttotheextentthatitscontextual
large.
acontext
Extentcondition2:allassumptionisrelevantinrequiredtoprocessitinthiscontextissmall.
totheextentthattheeffort
Forthe一Jhe
sake
.
.
valueot
relevance=~
ofbrevity,we
.
(Sperber&Wilson,1995:125)
can
usea
mathematical
formatto
showit:
ContextualEffects
Thethemorethe
format
tells
US
thatotherthingsbeingequal,themorecontextualeffectsare,
relevant
theassumptionis,andthelessprocessingefforts,themore
relevant
assumption
is.Theoptimalrelevance
Can
besimplyexpressed弱thegreatest
to
cognitiveeffectsforminimalprocessingefforts.And,inorder
producecertainkindof
contextualeffects,theassumptionsinputintothemindofhearershouldhavedefiniterelationstotheestablished
assumptions.Usually
30
therearethree
ways:(1)generating
new
set
ofassumptionswiththecombinationofnewandoldassumptions,butdifferent
all
frombothofthem;(2)strengthening
existing
assumption;(3)opposite
are
to
theexisting
assumption
andreplaceit.However,contextualeffects
not
thesinglefactoraffecting
thedegreeofrelevance.Sincethecontext,thecognitiveenvironment,inRTdemandsthementalprocessingoftheinputofassumptionsandtheeffortsofthehearers.So,theinputwithoutcausing
any
contextualeffectsonlycostingprocessingeffortsisruledout
ofthefieldofrelevance.
Thenthelast.questioniswhatthecommunicationisaccording
to
RT.Sperberand
Wilson(1995)strongly
shouldworktogether
to
holdthatencoding-decodingmodelandinferentialmodelwork
out
thecompletemeaningof
all
utterance,and
iS
make
assurance
ofthesuccessful
communication.The
communication
on
an
ostensive.inferentialstimulusof
one.The
achievementofcommunicationrelies
theostensive
showing
speakers’intention,andthesuccessful
recurrence
oftheintention
tO
forthehearers.So,theostentionofthepickedup:
speakers
providestWOlayersofintention
be
Informativeintention:tomakemanifestassumptionsI.
or
moremanifest
totheaudience
asetof
(Sperber&Wilson,1995:58)
Communicativeintention:tomakeitmutuallymanifesttoaudienceandcommunicatorthatthecommunicatorhasthisinformativeintention.
(Sperber&Wilson,1995:61)
Theinformative
changethethe
intentionis
to
provideassumptionswhicharemanifest
even
and
then
assumptions
to
ofaudiencebyadding,contrasting
is
to
replacing.However,
communicative
do
intention
SO
letthe
audiencerealizetheintentionof
communicatorsandinferwhattheimpliedmeaningbehindtheexplicithints.
to
Paraphrasing,theinformativeintentionisthe
showtheexplicitandsuperficial
the
informative
input,and
communicative
intentionis
to
manifest
intention.So,the
ostensive.inferentialcommunicationiSputinthisway:
3l
Ostensive-inferentialcommunication:the
communicator
produces
a
stimuluswhich
makesitmutuallymanifesttocommunicatorandaudiencethatthecommunicatorintends,by
meansofthisstimulus,tomakemanifest
I.
or
moremanifesttotheaudience
aset
ofassumptions
(Sperber&Wilson,1995:63)
Asthisdefinitionstands,theshows
the
intention
and
to
job
ofcommunicatorsis
in
order
to
to
provide
the
a
stimulus,which
ofof
provide
thisactivate
assumptions
communicators
audiences.Afterreceivingtheostensivestimulus,the
on
job
audienceistoinferthemeaningofthestimulusbasedaffectedbythestimulus.So,wemay
the
changedassumptions
ale
say
thatostentionandinference
cail
thetwosides
sure
ofthecommunicationcoin,eachofwhichflowingofcommunication.
not
beerasedinordertomakeofthe
3.3TheComprehensionProcedureintheFrameofRT
Generallyspeaking,asshownabove,thecomprehensionprocedureofRTincludesdecodingandinferencetypes.Andfortheaddressee,heshouldknowtheinformativeintentionandcommunicativeintention
and
bealert
to
theoptimalrelevantinputs
absorbedintothecognitiveenvironmenttoproducepositivecognitiveeffects,afterthatobey
the
presumptions
of
relevance
to
do
a
feedback.Then,another
turn
of
communicationhappensinthesameway.
Roughly,therewhich
ale
ale
threesub—tasksthataleinvolvedinthecomprehensionprocess,to
get
the
exact
important
meaning
of
inputs
andintentionsof
communicators.
幻
Constructing
an
appropriatehypothesisaboutexplicitcontent(explicature)viadecoding,
disambiguation,referenceresolution,andotherpragmaticenrichmentprocesses.
b)Constructing
an
appropriatehypothesis
abouttheintendedcontextual
assumption(implicatedpremise)c)Constructing
anappropriatehypothesisabouttheintendedcontextual
32
implications
(implicatedconclusion)
(HuangYah,2007:196)
Theabovethreestepsclearlydemonstratethatitis
theanorderedprocesstodigouthigher-levelexplicaturesimplicatures.Thefirststepistoknowthebasicand
involvingthedecodingandinference.Theprocessofworkingouttheimplicatedpremiseisinlinewiththeimmediatecognitiveenvironment.Theimplicatedconclusionisdevelopedthroughtheinferentialprocessbasedontheformertwosteps.
3.4TheHypothesisof
BasedonDMsinDiscourseInterpretationawhattheauthorhasdiscussed,DMscertainlywouldbeprocedural
ameaningcontributingtothewholeprocessofcommunication,whichcouldnotbe
completeonewithouttheadjustmentofproceduraltokens.Suchkindofproceduraltokenscouldnotenrichtheencyclopedicknowledge
world,butthey
cognitionareandrepresentationofphysicalveryimportanttoproduceatextinvolvingthefactorsofhumanandsocialfactors.Besides,definiteDMsdomakecontributionstothelevelofexplicatures.So,thehypothesisisthatDMsarethecandidatesinvolvedinthethreesteps,andtheweightsofthemaredifferentindifferentperiodsfordifferentDMs.
Ifwecomparetheinterpretationofdiscoursetothemathematicalalgorithm,thepropositionalmeaningofsentencesisthenumbers,whicharepotentiallylinkedtoeachotherindifferentwaysthatproducedifferentresults.Suchkindof
thepossiblecoherencerelationsof
computationallinkageisjustlikesentences.ThenthemajorityofDMsarethecertainlythesignalstoshowhowthecomputationshould
differentresultsbe,anddifferentchoicesofDMswinandmustcauseeventheformulahasthe
samenumber.Inotherwords,tointerpret
wayadiscourseinthescopeofRTistofindtheDMshaveaneffectontheprocessofmeaningconstrualofthediscourseascommunication,andtheeffectalsocouldbetreatedasthemotivationoftheexistenceofDMs.ThisisthetopictobedevelopedinChapterfour.33
ChapterFour
TheFunctionsand
Motivation
of
DMs
4.1
DMsandMeaningConstrual
AstheauthorhasdiscussedinChapterthree,withthedevelopmentofcognitive
pragmatics,thetraditionaldecodingintoexplicaturesandinferenceintoimplicatureshasbeenbrokenupintotheunderstandingofbothdecodingexplicatures
and
inferenceinvolvedinto
discourse
and
only
inferenceinto
implicautures.So,DMs,even
connectiveswhichonlyaffecttheproceduraldevelopmentwill
be
a
without
conceptuMmeaningexplicatures
and
factor
within
theconsideration
ofproducing
both
implicatures.
4.1.1
DMsandExplicatures
exact
Usually,thelinguisticformisincompleteforexpressingtheworld(Xumeaning
Shenghuan,2006),and
of
thereexists
a
gappingbetweenwhatthepropositional
anutteranceand
theintentionofthespeakeruneringtheutterance.However,the
not
existenceofgappingdoes
mean
theincompetenceof
languageand
language
users,
primarilybecauseoftheunnecessaryenoughpragmaticfactorscontributing
OUt
redundancy
to
offullexpressionsincethere
carl
are
it.Eveninthiscase,theheareralso
meaning
work
thefull
explicatures
based
on
propositional
andinference.Inan
appropriatecontext,12a
Can
expressthepropositionin12b
(12)a.Thekidiscrying.
(121b.ThekidXiscryingYforZBased
state
on
thedecodingprocessandinference,thehearerknowswhothekidis,the
ofcrying
and
the
reason
whythiskidiscrying.Thisisthecasetoshowitisvery
our
natural
torecover
thecompleteexplicitmeaningin
out
dailycommunication.But,apart
higherabilityof
fromthis,tofigurethehigher-levelexplicatures
usuallydemands
inferencebyhearers.Inthefollowingexample,theanswerfromMaryatleasthasfourkindsof
explicatures(Carston,2000).
34
(13)8-Bill:Didyour
son
visityouattheweekend?
b.Mary(happily):Hedid.(14)a.Mary’S
SOil
visitedher
SOIl
at
theweekend.
at
b.Marysaysthather
visitedhertheweekend.
c.Marybelievesthathersonvisitedherattheweekend.d.Maryishappythathersonvisitedherattheweekend.Apparently,oneoftheanswersfromMarycouldbeconstrainedbythe
context
a
salient
one
chosenbyBill
utterances
andexpectationofhim.Now,ifwechangethe
a
of
Maryintothefollowingform,theexplicatureswillbe
05)a..Bill:Didyour
son
littledifferent.
visityouattheweekend?
b.Mary:Youknow,hedid.Compared、衍t11expressionexplicatures
sentence
13.sentence15replacesnon?verbalfacial
gotthe.DMyou
a
or
intonation
the
withyouknow.Afterweknow,wecoulddeny
of口andand
bof14.because“youknowismarkerofmeta?knowledgeabout
to
whatspeaker
hearer
share”(Schiffrin,2006:268).Duethemeat—knowledge,you
knowdoesnotexpresstheknowledgebuttheattitude.So,the
existenceofyou
information
beyondit,thepropositional
know
excludesthe
a
basicexplicaturesOfsimple
to
affirmation
higher
oftheyes—noquestionandprovides
explicaures.Just
as
propositionalattitude
revealthe
could
level
Rouchota(1998:121)pointedout“DMs
contributeto
context
utterance
interpretationbyencoding
information
aboutsomeaspectof
inwhichthespeakerintendsher
not
utterance
tobeinterpreted”.Inotherwords,
DMsare
information—oriented
butcontext—orientedlinguisticforms.
a
Thereisanotherexamplethatcouldbe
stronger
oneto
showthespecificroleof
DMsinworking
(16)A:1do
out
theexplicatures.
you,but…
wanttohelp
see.
B:Ok,Isee。I
Inthisconversation
turn,speaker
A
even
doesnotfinishhisspeakingwhenB
out
burstsintohisfeedback.Obviously,everyreaderincludingBcouldpredict
35
whatA
willsaycontinuously.Andthecomplete
sentence
couldberecoveredinthisway.
Idowanttohelpyou,buttheshortageofXpreventsmedoingit.
Certainly,theexistenceofbutdoes
not
denythemeaningofhelp,eventhoughthe
,
semanticmeaningofbutiscontrast.0nthecontrary,theoverwhelmingfunctionsofbut
一
一
ispragmatic,speaker-returnaccording
to
Schiffrin.Itis
justthispragmaticmeaningthat
not
providesthemotivationofthefeedbackof
speaker
B.Inpointoffact,hedoes
understandwhatthespeakerAwillsay,butwhattheattitudeofhim.
So,asthebasisofworking
outthe
completemeaningof
a
discourse,thefunctions
ofDMsintheperspercitveofexplicaturesmainlyusherinthehigher-levelaspect,notthebasicwill
save
level.And
intheviewofRT,theexistenceofDMsinOurdailycommunication
to
theprocessingeffortsofhearersandhelpthem
findthe
exact
higher-level
explicitmeaningsofspeakers.
4.1.2
DMs
andImplicatures
Wilson
claim
that
and
Sperber(2004)pointed
OUt
theessaysfromGriceadvocatehuman
on
central
and
to
an
essentialfeatureofmost
communication,bothverbal
non-verbal,istheexpressionandrecognitionofintention.Tomanifesttheintentionsbothsidesofcommunicationisthe
critical
step
to
make
surea
successfuland
continuouscommunication.Asforverbalcommunication,besidestheexplicitofsentence,implicaturesare
meaning
and
another
importantconceptinthefieldofpragmatics
communication.The
meaning,then
which
are
waytoknowimplicauresdemandsthreestepsoftheexplicit
theimplicatedpremise
and
theimplicatedconclusion,thelattertwoof
implicaturesinthetraditional
pragmatictheory.
all
InthefieldofRT,thethe
exact
utterancetreatedas
input
to
stimulatehearers
to
find
out
meaning
inandbehindtheutterance、^ritllthehelpofcontexts.Asthemost
importanttypeoffromtheinput
cognitive
effects,thecontextimplicationis
a
conclusiondeducible
nor
and
thecontexttogether,butneitherfromthesingleinput
out
fromthe
singlecontext.So,toworktheimplicaturesdemandsmoreinformationfromthe
cognitiveenvironment,amixtureoftheinputandtheexistingcontextbeforethecommunication.
DMs,especiallydiscourseconnectives,forexample,but,and,or,afterall,havebeenintensivelystudiedastheproceduralmeaningtotellhearersthedifferentimplicatureswiththesamepropositionslinkedbydifferentconnectives.Now,wehavealookatthisexampleadoptedfromRochota(1996).
(17)HevotesTorybutItrusthim.
Theacceptableimpliedconclusionofthissentenceshouldbe“IdonottrustthepersonwhovotesTory”.Andanormalinferentialprocesspredictedformthissentenceshouldbelikethis:
PremiseIdonottrustthepersonwhovotesTo拶
H£∑Q±坌墨!垒!墨
ConclusionIdonottrusthim.
HoweveLtheDMbutchangesthegeneralprediction.IntheaccountofRT,theestablishedsetofassumptionsthatthepersonwhovotesToryisnotworthtrustingbyIischangedintotheoppositedirection.
Now,ifweseparateitintotwopartsasfollowing:
(18)HevotesTory。
(19)Itrusthim.
Whatistherelationbetweenthemandisthereanydifference?Certainly,therecouldbemanylinguisticformsavailabletolinkthem.Possibly,severalDMsCanbeusedtolinkthembesidesbut,forexample,
(20)HevotesTory.SoItrusthim.
(21)HevotesToⅨalthoughItrusthim.
(22)HevotesTorybecause1trusthim.
Ofcourse,theseexamplesdonotexhaustthepossibleDMsthatcarlbeutilizedtolinkthem,butthosethreesentencesdoshowUSthattherecouldbeacceptabledifferentrelationsandgrammaticalsentenceswithdifferentDMseventhepropositionstheylink37
are
same.And,differentimplicatures
are
producedowing
tO
thedifferentchoicesof
DMs.
Sentence20implicatesthatthepersonwho
votestrust
Toryisworthtrusting.should
notvote
Sentence21implicatesthatthepersonwhoI
T0巧.
To巧isthatI
Sentence22implicatesthatthepre-conditionthattheperson
trusthim.
votes
Thosepossible
sentences
andexplanationsshow
us
thatthedifferentDMsused
to
linkthesamepropositionalmeaningwillproducedifferentexpectationsforhearersof
thepre?existedassumptionsandtheintentionsofspeakers.Asforthoseimplicatureslistedabove,thoseDMs
and
thepropositionstheylinkarefactorscontributing
not
to
the
implicatures.Obviously,thesimpleillustrationis
satisfying
to
solvethecomplex
issue,andthatisthemotivationofthefollowingwriting,whichincludestheeffectsof
DMsinthecognitiveinferentialprocessoftheinternalmind.
4。2TheFunctionsof
DMs
intheOstensive.inferentialProcess
a
TheresearchofDMsinthescopeofRThasmadeprocedural
distinctivecontribution
to
the
meaningand
thespecificeffect
a
on
the
context
byDCs.Asitwasshownin
Chapterthree,theconceptofrelevanceis
comparativeitemdecidedbythecontextual
effectsandtheprocessingefforts.And,theproceduralmeaningsofmostDMswhich
cail
not
berepresentedinthemindof
as
human
beingsprovethemotivationofDMs.
no
HoweveL
theauthorhaspointedout,althoughthereis
the
representationalfunctionof
DMs,whichdowngrades
computation
does
reveal
significance
oftheirvalueassingleunits,thefunctionof
ofthem
iftlley
are
related
to
the
significance
other
representationallinguisticunits,especiallyintheprocessofinterpretation.
Itgoeswithoutdenyingthat
to
workouttherelationbetween
a
speciallinguistic
phenomenonandrelevance,boththecontextual
effectsandtheprocessingefforts
shouldbetakenintoconsideration.Toachievetheoptimalisto
use
relevance,the
idealsituation
thesmallestprocessing
effortstoproducethelargestcontextualeffects.
3R
However,since
the
biologicallyprocessing
efforts
are
are
very
as
difficulttobe
experimentallycalculated,thecontextualeffectspoint
to
alwaystreated
thebreakthrough
estimatethedegreeofrelevanceaccompaniedwiththeevaluationofprocessing
efforts.
4.2.1
DMsandContextuaiEffects
on
Sinceinthisparttherewillbethediscussionisnecessarytomentiontheidea
context
DMsandthecontextualeffects,it
a
again,andgive
moredetailedanalysis.
context
InChapterthree,theauthornarratedthedefinitionof
bySperberand
a
Wilson
inthescopeofcognitionunderstanding.Briefly,contexts
as
are
subsetofthe
hearer’Sassumptionsabouttheworld.And
forassumptions,theyarethoughtstreated
bythe
we
individual
say
as
representationsoftheactual
is
a
world(Sperber&Wilson,1995).So,
thoughtstreatedbyhim
to
as
carl
the
context
subsetofthe
on
hearer’S
representationsoftheactualworld.Based
thisdefinition,according
Sperberand
Wilson,DMs
have
no
identity
tOenter
intothecontextoftheindividual
no
use
as
DMshave
no
representationfunctionbutcomputationfunction.So,itisdegreeofrelevanceofDMs,butveryvaluablehaveeffects
on
talkingaboutthe
can
totest
whethertheexistenceofDMs
therelevantinputs,thesetofassumptions.
an
Naturally,iffollowingsomething
utterance
linkedbyDMs,especiallyDCs,has
no
precedingand
utterances,the
to
hearerwill
think
itis
incompleteandnaturallyexpect
linkthisutterance,forexample,
toworklateshifttoday.
(23)Mary:ButyouhadAsforthisrelationbetweenifthereisdemands
no
sentence,a
hearerwhohas
no
backgroundinformationaboutthe
Mary
andyou,especiallytheworkingconditionofyouwillbepuzzled
to
addinginformation
bepresented.So,butdoes
notcreatea
context,but
utterance.
a
context,whichsuppliestheevidenceoftheacceptanceofthe
onecase
Therewillbe
illustratedbyRouchotaasfollowing:
at
(24)(context:Petercomesbackhomefromwork
39
3.00)
Mary:Butyouhadtoworklateshifttoday.
(Rouchota,1996:205)
InChaptertwo,theauthorhasmentionedtheconstrainingroleofDCs
inthe
processofinterpretationtoallowthederivationofstrengthen
all
a
contextualimplicationlikeSO,tocontradict
utterance
all
existing
to
assumption,扣rthermore,to
specify
the
role
of
the
existingassumptionthe
discourse
by
nevertheless,and
in
Blakemore(1992).However,besides
on
DCs,thereareotherDMswhichhavetheeffects
contexts.Considerthefollowingexample.(25)Carrie:Charles,I'dlikeforyouto
meetHamish,myfiancee.
Charles:Excellent.Excellent.Howdoyoudo,Hamish.Delightedtomeetyou.Charming
surprisetofindCarriebackinthecountry.
Hamish:Yes,well,took
a
lotofpersuading,I
can
tellyou.
(Cuenc42008:1380originalemphasis)
Inthisconversation,thecountrymeansBritain.ItisobviousthatCharlesisverydelightedtomeetHamish
and
surprised
to
findCharlescameback
t.o
hismotherland.
Herethecombinationofyeswellmeansthepartialagreement
and
partialcontradiction.
SO,
InCuenca’Sopinion,thiscombinationofyeswellreplacedthecombinationofyes
and
the
appearanceofwellevidentially
illustratesthe
following
to
sentence
which
to
contradictstheexpectationofCharles(i.e.Carrieisalsodelighted
comebackhis
motherland).
So,itisapparentthattheeffectsofmostDMs⑤on
content
contextsatenot
lik.eother
beings,
set.
words
or
propositionswhich
are
Call
berepresentedinthemindof
human
and
becauseofthis,theireffects
toconstrainilew
all
assumptionsaddedintothe
Thosenewexisting
assumptionsassumptionsand
may
s仃engthen
existing
assumption
or
contradictthe
replacethemastheauthorhasintroducedinChapterthree
fromwhattheauthorhasdiscussed,DMs
accordingtoSperber
andWilson.Different
forthedifferentunderstandingofDMsandtheirsubtypes.therearedifferentideasofwhethersomeDMshave
marker
conceptualmeaning.CommentaD.7markerssuchaShonesfyaccordingtoSperberandWilson,reformulationsuchasthatistOsayaccordingtOBlakemoreusuallyhaveconceptualmeaning.
40
囝As
callnot
producethedirectcontextualeffects.On也econtrary.itistheindirecteffects
thatacknowledgethevalueofDMsinvariouslinguisticunits.Theindirectroleofthemis
nottopresent
hearerswhatthenewpresentationis,butwhatthenewpresentationwill
core
be.The
fromthe
indicatingfunctionispartlyfromthe
meaningofDMs,andalsopartly
knowledge
ofthecommunicatorsaboutthebackgroundandthe
can
immediate
a
context.With
thecoeffectsofpropositionsandDMs,thehearer
havewhole
representationoftheexternalworld,thevariousrelationsamongdifferentpropositions,
even
theattitudeandintentionsofthoseexpressedInconclusion.thecontextualeffectsof
utterances.
notto
DMs
tell
are
contradict,strengthen…
must
be
the
assumptiOIlSbut
tobe
an
indicator
to
hearers
thatthere
new
assumptionswhichwouldcontradict,strengthen...theassumptions.
4.2.2
DMS
andOstension
Throughthediscussionintheprecedingpart,theindicatingfunctionofDMshasbeenaffirmed.But,astheauthorhasdiscussedinChapterthree,thecommunicationaccordingspeakerisbv
the
to
thetheoryofgive
relevanceand
is
an
ostensive-inferential
out
process.Thejob
of
to
an
ostensionheareristowork
a
theintentionthroughinferencecontextual
effects
ofcertain
mutualmanifestationofstimulus.So,the
inthis
assumptionsshouldbemanifest,andtheappearanceofDMsmusttaketheirrolesperiod.
OstensioniSalsocalledostensivebehaviorswhich
make
all
intention
manifest.
Usually,itprovidestwolayersofinformations,theinformationwhichhasbeenpointed
OUt
and
the
informationthatthefirstlayerofinformationhasbeenintentionallypointed
a
out.In
otherwords,asspeaker,the
ostensivebehaviorsshould
to
consistofthe
mutual.manilest
information
andhisintention
showthe
information.
to
Indailycommunication,theinformative
intention
speaker
shouldobeytheruleofostension
intention.If
showhiswill
be
and
communicative
not,there
toexpress
misunderstandings.So,inordertomakethemeaninghewants
41
exactly,the
speakeralwaysusescertainlinguisticexpressionstoachievethisgoal.InthefieldofDMs,reformulationmarkersareonebestchoice.
(26)Thepatientisstillalive;thesurgeonshaveretiredwhileanxiousrelativeshoveratthebedside./notherwords,thepoundhassurvivedanotherdaywithoutintervention.
(Blakemore,1996:328)
(27)Therepublicans,thatis,thethirdpartyinthecentre-leftcoalition,disagreedwiththelegislation.
(Blakemore,1996:329)
Here,inotherwordsisareformulationmarkerwhichreformulatesahigherlevelexplicature,andthereformulationafterreformulationmarkersistherepresentationofutteranceswhichtheyresemble.Thisresemblanceinvolvesthesharingoflogicalandcontextualimplications,theutterancecallbesaidtoberelevantaSarepresentationofathought.Formallyspeaking,
ThespeakerbelievesthatPisafaithfulrepresentationofathoughtQ
(Blakemore,1996:340)
IfweretulTltoexample(27),thereformulationmarkerthatisiscommunicatingabasicexplicature:
ThetermtheRepublicansiscoreferentialwiththetermthethirdpartyincentral-leftcoalition.
(Biakemore,1996:341)
So,aSonechoiceofspeakerstomakehistwolayersofinformationostensive,ifnotallDMs,atleaStreformulationmarkersalewell—developedtobeappliedtohelpthemtoshowtheirexactinforillativeintentionasthebasisofcommunicativeintentionandprovideenoughevidencestoinducehearerstomakeacorrectselectionofassumptionsandcontextualimplicationswithinference.
4.2.3DMsandInference
Accordingtotheprincipleofostensive—inferentialcommunicationinRT,differentfromostensivebehaviorwhichisthedutyofspeaker,inferenceisthedutyofhearerto42
catchtheoptimalrelevantinputsandworkouttheimplicaturesbasedontheinputsandhisownstoredconceptualrepresentations.Generallyspeaking,“inferenceistheprocessbywhich
orallassumptionisacceptedastrueorprobablytrueonthestrengthofthetruthotherwords,probabletruthofotherassumptions”(Sperber&Wilson,1995:68).Ininferenceshouldmakesureofthetruthvalueofconclusionsfromthetruthvalueofpremises.Theinferenceofcomprehension,intheopinionofSperberandWilson,isaspontaneousnon-demonstrativeinferencewiththeaidofcertaindeductiveruleswhich“playacrucialroleinnon-demonstrativeinference”(Sperber&Wilson,1995:69).And
twosteps:hypothesis
constructsalltoreachvalidnon.demonstrativeconclusionsusuallyconsistsofformationandhypothesisconfirmation,whichmeansthatthehearerfirstly
assumptionrepresentedbythespeaker’Sostensivebehavior,andthenconfirmtheassumption.Duringthisprocess,thethreestepsofknowingexplicaures,implicated
arepremisesandimplicatedconclusions
Intheirbook,Sperberandcompletelyinvolved.acceptedtheideaofWilsonFodor(1983)aboutthemechanismofmind,whichconsistsoftwotypes:inputsystemsandcentralsystems.
oneTheformerisinchargeofprocessingthe
memoryandperceptualinformationandthelatteroneintegratesinformation,formsperformsinferentialtasks.Asfordiscourse
interpretation,thekeyresearchpointisthelanguageinputsunderstandingtheinputs.
Inordertoandinferentialprocessoftotallyunderstandtheinputs,aStheauthorhassuggested,thebaseistheexplicatureoftheinputs,usuallystoredintoanincompletelogicalform.And,“Theincompletelogicalformsplay
1allimportantroleincognition”(Sperber&Wilson,sentence995:73).Basically,thelinguisticinputsystemdecodestheintoitslogicalformwhichthehearercompletesitintothefullypropositionalcomplete
systemsform,asemanticallycentralandtruth—valuablelogicform.Interactedwithit,thememoryintruestoresthefactualassumptionswhichareentertainedasdescriptionoftheworldbutnotexplicitlyrepresentedwithvariousstrengths.So,theultimatepurposeof
describedascommunicationisfollowing.43
Each
newlyacquired
tO
factual
assumption
iscombined
aim
istO
with
a
stockand
ofexistingimprovethe
assumptions
undergoinference
processwhose
modify
individual’Soverallrepresentationoftheworld.
(Sperber&Wilson.1995:75)
Ifitgoestotheinterpretationofutteranceswhichformassumptionsinthemindofthehearer,thewholeanddetailedworkingmechanismsshouldbeinthisway.Thepropositionalformsofassumptions
are
composedofconceptstowhichthedeductive
a
rulesaresensitive.Eachconceptconsistsofcertainconceptappearsinstored
in
memory
at
a
label,or
address.Whenthe
addressof
a
logicalformbeingprocessed,varioustypesofinformation
are
thataddress
accessed(Sperber&Wilson,1995).Theand
lexicalentries.
tonsilsofin
a
set
informationincludeslogical,encyclopedic
Theinformationin
encyclopedicentriesisrepresentational:it
of
assumptionswhichmayundergodeductiverules.Theinformation
logicalentries,by
contrast,iscomputational:itconsistsofa
whichtheassociatedconceptappears.
set
ofdeductiveruleswhichapplytoassumptionsin
(Sperber&Wilson,1995:75)
Besides,thelexicalentriesthe
content
are
representationswithlinguisticforms.So,‘‘recoveryof
of
anutterance
involvestheabilitytoidentifytheindividualwordsit
to
contains,totheirlogical
recover
theassociatedconcepts,and
applythedeductiverulesattached
to
entries”(Sperber&Wilson,1995:90).And
an
utterance
intheprocessofinterpretation,
are
thehypothesisisthatthethreeaspectsofentriesofthe
at
compatiblewiththethree
theaddresswherethe
conceptsofthe
utterance
steps
store
respectively.With
theaid
is
non?demonstrative
inference,the
three
ofcomprehension
which
emphasizedbyHuangYanarecompleted.
Asthefinalstepofcomprehensionprocedure,thecontextualimplicationis,
AsetofassumptionsPcontextuallyimplies
all
assumptionQinthecontextifandonlyif
(i)theunionPandCnoll—triviallyimpliesQ(ii)Pdoes
notnon?triviallyimply
Q,and
44
(iii)Cdoesnotnon-triviallyimplyQ
(Sperber&Wilson.1995:i07)
Thethreeaspectsofthecognitiveenvironmentandthetherecouldbemeaningof
ensure
an
a
utterance
itself
ensure
that
logicalandoverallinferentialprocessofcatchingtheimplicated
utterance.Thecoeffectsofcognitiveenvironment
and
the
utterance
itself
the
correct
understandingandsuccessfulcommunication.As
Call
one
hottopicinthe
ofDMs
fieldofpragmatics,bridging
demonstratecertainaspectofthesignificance
intheprocessofinterpretation.
(28)IpreferEdinburghtoLondon.Ihatethesnowywinters.
(29)IpreferEdinburghtoLondon.However,Ihatethesnowywinters.
(Matsui,2000:180-185)
AccordingtoMatsui,thequestionnairewhowerequestionedwiththefollowingquestion,wheredoesthespeakerhatethesnowywinters?Andthe
sentence
answer
thatgoes
to
to
28isLondonintotal
agreement。The
reason
isthat“someoneprefersAthecontraryto
sentence
B
forcertainpositive
reasons”(Matsui,2000:180).On
to
29,thehappen.
entirequestionnairechoosesEdinburgh
betheplacewherethesnowy
winters
Then.whal
demands
a
isthesignificanceoftheDMhowever?
Sincethedetailedillustration
well—knownencyclopedicknowledge,theexamplesrootedinchinawillbe
better.Now,considerthe
followingexamples.
toXiamen,becausesheisinfavorofwarmwinter.toXiamen,althoughsheisinfavorofwarmwinter.
(30)MotherhasmovedfromGuangzhou(31)MotherhasmovedfromGuangzhou
(Ran
Apparently,thewarinwinterin
sentence
Yongpingetal,2006:273.translatedandemphasizedbytheauthor)
winter
in
sentence
30belongs
to
Xiamen,and
thewarm
31belongstoGuangzhou.TheapplicationofDMsdisambiguatesthe
puzzledbridgingprobleminthefollowingsentence.
(32)MotherhasmovedfromGuangzhoutoXiamen.Sheisinfavorofwarmwinter
So,whatisthepossibleillustrationoftheprocessofinterpretationinthescopeofcognitiveinferenceadvocatedbySperberand
45
Wilson?The
followingdescriptioncould
beaconsiderableattempt.
Intheprocessofinterpretingadiscourseinthescopeofcognitivepragmatics,astheauthorhashypothesizedinChapterthreeanddiscussedintheprecedingparts,therewillbe
goestoacombinationofencyclopedicrepresentationandproceduralcomputation.Itsentence32thattheauthorhasexemplifiedinthreeaspects:encyclopedic
lexicalentries.Sincethedescriptionofthisanalysisis
aentries,logicalentriesandabriefandroughtrial,therewillbeonlydescriptionoftheformertwoentries,whichignores
onthecomplexandenergy—consumingofdiscussionlexicalentries.Atleast,thereare3
assumptionsofencyclopedicentriesofsentence
a32:ThereiswarmwinterinGuangzhou.
b
cThereTheiSwarmwinterinXiamen,too.onemovingfromplacetoanotherplaceisforpositiveresults.
sentenceThetwopossibleillustrationofthiscouldbe
The
TheintentionofspeakeristhatthereiswarmwinterinGuangzhou.intentionofspeakeristhatthereiswarmwinterinXiamen.
toAccordingstandardruleofmodus
sentencestollendoponens伊andQrepresentthepropositionsexpressedbytherespectively)
(a)Input:(i)妒or9
(ii)(notD
Output:Q
(b)Input:(i)(尸or9
(ii)(riot9
Output:P
(Sperber&Wilson,1995:87)
So,theinterpretationof
ofsentence32istOfindouttheevidencetonegatetheexistenceordertoeliminate
onP(warmwinterinGuangzhou)orQ(warmwinterinXiamen)inoneofthemandjustifyanotherone.Unfortunately,thecomputationsolelyrelying
workoutthestandardlogicalrulesdoesnottherealintentionofthiscommunication
althoughthere
are
enoughcontextualassumptions
to
as
theauthorhaslistedabove。
Ofcourse.itisdifficult
our
defmetheroleofDMsintheworkingmechanismsof
mindin
a
micro,experimentalandobjective
levelinthispaperforthemethod
whichtheauthorselects.However,itcouldbepostulatedthatthedifferentchoicesof
DMsin
sentences
dohave
to
all
effect
on
theinferentialprocessatcertainpoint,such
as
thelogicalentries
selectthepotentialeliminationofpremises,astheexampleshave
shownforthispurpose.
4.3TheFunctionsof
DMs
inDiscourseInterpretation
Aftertheanalysisoftheprecedingparts,itiswell—developedthatDMscouldmake
an
effectatthesemanticandpragmaticlevel.InthescopeofRT,DMshelpthespeaker
attheostensiveleveland
thehearerattheinferentiallevel,and
Success
at
lastthecontextual
effectsinfluencedbyDMspromisethe
ofthecommunication.Inthefollowing
a
toshow
part,theauthorattemptstoadopttwofigures
comparativelysuccinctand
objective
description.
4.3.1The
Macro.description
a
oftheOstensive-inferentialProcess
a
Thereis
standardpictureofinterpreting
discourse
and
to
communication.Thebe
a
recoveryofthemessagecommunicatedbythe
speaker
issaid
hybridprocess
involvingbothsemanticinterpretationandpragmaticinterpretation.
Thewiththe
semantic
interpretationis
ofthat
to
dig
out
thetruth-conditionofanarbitrarythe
sentence
knowledge
language
by
interpreter.However,thepragmatic
andthehypothesisisthat
interpretationistoknowwhythespeakerdoeswhathedoes
thespeakerisrational,theinterpretationisdefeasibleandthereiSofcontextualinformationthat
Call
no
limittothe
amount
inprincipleaffectthepragmaticinterpretation
(Recanati,2002).The
test
of
processofrecoveryofpropositionalmeaning
an
utterancetO
the
truthvalueinvolves
freeenrichmentwhichconsistsofstrengtheningand
47
expansion@,saturationand
assemantictransfer(Recanati,2004)exemplifiedrespectivelyfollowing.
(33)
(34)
(35)
(36)Ihavebrushedmyteeth【thismorning】wedding】Ihavenothing[suitable】towear[toJohn’SElizabethiscleverer[thanNaomi】onShakespeareisthetopshelfi
Actually,thisprocesscalledprimarypragmaticprocess⑦byRecanatiisroughlyequaltothewaytodeterminehigher-levelexplicatureswhichtheauthorhasdiscussedinChapterthree.Asforthisdiscussion,withinthescopeofRT,thefollowingfigureispresentedtoshowthesuccinctdescription.
Figure2Themacro-descriptionoftheostensive-inferentia!process
Inthisfigure,theauthorattemptstodemonstratethatintheostensive—inferential
areprocess,bothlevelsofexplicaturesandimplicaturesscheduledtoshowandfindout
thecontextualeffects.Cognitively,theinputisinterpretedintotheoutputthroughtheproceduresdefinedbyHunagYahinChapterthree.Intheviewoftheauthor,theinputcouldberoughlyequaltotheostensivebehaviors,andthedecodingandinferenceare@Theoutputpropositionyieldedbyinputoneentailstheoriginalpropositioninthefirstsubtype.butthesecondsubtypehasnosuchdemand(HuangYah,2007).
寸Primanrpragmaticprocessneednotinvolveaninference.butlheprocessofunderstandinghigher-levelexplicatureinvolvesinference.Besides.thereissecondar3rpragmaticprocesswhichdetermineswhatthespeakermeansonthebasisofwhathesayswhenwhatthespeakermeansgoesbeyondwhathesays(Recanati,1993)
involvedintothefirstleveltoproducecontextualeffects.Theobliquetransitionalperiodfromexplicitlevel
involvestheinferencetotoareameanstheimplicitlevel.And,theimplicitlevelsolelyasaproducecontextualeffects.Afterthisprocess.theoutputmixtureofthenewassumptionsandexiaedassumptionscomesintothemindofthehearer.AsforthefunctionofDMs,ithappensbasedonattheostensiveandinferentiallevelthecomprehensionprocedure,andthefinaleffectiSthecontextualeffects.4.3.2TheFlowChartofDiscourseInterpretationBasedandtheFunctionsofonRTDMs
ThedetailedandessentialdiscussionoftheroleofDMsindiscourseiSstill
allcompulsoryandworthwhile,evenifthediscussionisabstractlytheoreticattempt
touncoverwithouttheexperimentalprocedure.Theconfrontingchallengeis
roleofDMscognitivelyinthewholeprocessofinterpretingatheexactdiscourse.Asforthispoint,figure2showsthemacro-descriptionoftheostensive—inferentialprocess,andwhatauthorneedstodonOWiStopresentamicroanddetaileddescriptionoftheintemalschemaofthewholeprocess.The
onfollowingfigureisprovidedtoshowtheRT.basicinterpretationmodelwhichiSbased
Figure3TheFlowChartofDiscourseInterpretationBased
49OnRT(Sstandsforspeaker,Hfor
hearer,Pthepropositionalformofutterance,Cforcontextwhichincludesthecommunicationcontextandabroadersocialcontext,RoPtherepresentationofProposition,ISinputsystem,CScentralsystem,LxElexicalentries,EEencyclopedicentries,LoElogicalentries.10Sfortheintentionofspeaker)
AstheflowchartshowsthespeakeruttersallutteranceconstrainedbyC1whichis
notadevelopedintoC2throughtheprocessingofcentralsystemsofhearer,whichis
simpleprocessofaddingpropositionalformofthe
C3andP.TheninteractedwithutterancetoC1,butthehybridofC1,inC2theexistingthreeentries.theassumptionsdemonstratetheirimplicaturesandfurthertheintentionofspeaker.TheoverlappingeffectofC1andC3insomedegreeisshownbythe
SOcurveline.Here,C1isthepre—buildingcontextofthespeakerand
contextisC3forthehearer.AndthemostimportantisC2,whichistheproductionofcontextualeffects.
onBased
ofthethismodel,thereisahypothesisthatthemomenttheostensivebehaviorsspeakerappeartheinferenceo.fhearerbegins.Constrainedbytheprincipleof
discoursethespeakerproducesisthemostrelevantonerelevance,thesharedbythe
ofwhichishearer,andthisprocessinvolvestheselectionofDMs,the
demonstratedintheperiodofcontextsignificance2andthecentralsystemsofthehearer.So,DMsmakeagreatinfluenceonthecontextualeffectsthroughthespecialroleoftwolevelsof
withexplicaturesandimplicaturesthenecessaryinvolvementofconceptual
representationofthediscourse.Andalltheprocessisprocessedinthecentralsystemofthespeakerbeforeheuttersitandthehearerafterhereceivesit.Relyingonthecasesexemplifiedintheprecedingchapters,theauthorstrongholdsthatthefunctionsofDMshappenatboththesemanticandpragmaticlevel.Intheprocessofinterpretation,thecontextualeffectsmustbeinfluencedbytheexistenceofDMs.Asforthecentralprocessingsystemsofthecommunicator,theoverwhelmingeffectofDMsiscalculatedinlogicalentries.
Obviously,theprecedingdiscussiondemonstratesthefunctionsofDMsextentandatosomeshowsthemotivationofDMsindiscourse.Inwhatfollowsthereiscasestudy
levelofcontrastwhichstronglydemandstheexistenceofDMswhenthepragmatic
interpretationneedsinthespecialcontexttoshowthespecialintention.4.4ACaseStudyofContrastiveCoherenceRelationsand
TointerpretaCDMsdiscourse,especiallyamonologue
atextinvolvestherecognitionofthecoherencerelationsinthetext.whichiSbasicideaofthescholarswhoareinfavor
oneofanalyzingthediscourseintheperspectiveofcoherence.As
relations,thecontrastivecoherencerelationsappeartosubtypeofcoherencebeanexception(Taboada,2006),
aanditisverynaturaltomeetthesentencesexpressingcontrastmarkedby
toDM,whichiscompatiblewiththedistinctiveeffectofDMsconstraintheinterpretationandthe
proceduralmeaning.Academically,theDMsexpressingcontrastiverelationsbetweensentencesarenamedascontrastiveDMs(CDMs)whichhavebeeninvestigatedbythescholarswhoareinterestedinDMsandconnectivesinthebroaderfieldofsemantics4.4.1TheMotivationofAdoptingCDMs
toTobeginwiththediscussionofthesignificanceofCDMs
needsaexpresscontrastsbasicdefinitionofcontrastivecoherencerelations,whichinvolvetwosegments
allofdiscourseandthespecificfeaturesoftwosegments.Acoherencerelationis
oraspectofmeaningoftwomorediscoursesegmentsthatcannotbedescribedintermsofthe
meaningofthesegmentsinisolation.Inotherwordsitisbecauseofthiscoherencerelationthatthemeaningoftwodiscoursesegmentsismorethanthesumoftheparts(Sandersetal,1992).Asforthefeaturesofcontrastivecoherencerelations,Hobbsputsitinthisway.
Inferp(a)fromtheassertionofSoand1p(b)fromtheassertionofS1,whereareaandbsimilar
Inferp(a)fromtheassertionofSoandp(b)fromtheassertionofS1,wherethereissomepropertyqsuchthatq(a)and--q(b)@
So@Pisproposition.SoandSIaretheadjacentpairsofanutterancewith
sentencesandqisthepropertyoftheconstituents.51precedings1,aandbaretheconstituentsof
0-Iobbs,1985:21)
ThemeticulousreconsiderationofthefirstcriterionofHobbsdrawssemanticopposition,whichdoescontextualfactorsexemplified
as
our
attentiontothe
or
not
require
anykindofencyclopedicknowledge
following.
(37)JohnisquickbutBillisslow.
Judgingfromthisexample,apparently,thewordsquickaccording
to
and
slowareantonyms
traditional
semantics
whichalso
standsinlinewiththedefinition.Now,
considerthefollowingexample.
(38)Johnisquickbutheis
no
goodatfootball.
sentence
Obviously,tounderstandthisinthe
is
notSO
simpleas
to
just
findthe
antonyms
sentence。andusuallythereare
and
costs
no
suchantonymsinthesentence.Itinvolves
toone
somefurther
knowledge
moreenergytofindthepropertythatbelongs
kindof
contrast
segmentdescribedincriterion
b.This
Can
besimplydefinedasthefindingthemotivationofisanotherexampleworthy
pragmaticcontrast.Andthekeyissueofthispartmarking
centerson
pragmaticnot
semanticcontrastwithCDMs.There
ofattention.
(39)Peter
wentout.Itwasraining.
a
Whenconfrontedwiththisdiscourse,thehearermustmake
decision
on
whatthe
relationisbetweenthe
twoutterances.The
intuitiontells
US
themosteconomical
and
couldbemergedintothe
acceptablerelationcouldbecircumstance,andthediscourse
following
sentence.
wentoutwhenitwasraining.
(40)Peter
However,isthereany
possibilitywe
inclineto
produce
another
sentenceas
following?
(41)PeterwentIfwemakethere
a
out
althoughitWasraining.
comparison
between
sentences
40and41intheperspectiveofRT,is
any
differenceintheprocessofinterpretationthat
Canillustratethepreference
to
circumstaIlcerather
than
concessive
relation?And
52
thehypothesisisthattheremustbe
certainevidencedominatingtheselection.Inorder
to
have
a
succinctandP
discussion,Q
to
is
assumed
to
standfortheprecedingsegmentPeterwent
out
thefollowing
segmentitwasraining.
In
sentence
40,itisclearthattheroleofPis
tO
producethesituationwhenQ
happens,and
therelationofPand
Q
is
a
naturalinstantiationoftheencyclopediceveryoneknows
representationofthe
humanbeings,becausealmost
andexperiences
it.So,
knowledgehasbeenpartoftheencyclopedicentriesexistinginthecentralsystems
ofthemind.
In
sentence
41,itisclearthatthereis
not
all
additionalmeaningbehindthissentence;
a
thetimeitisrainingisthatis
suitableforgoingout.And,TheCDMpresupposes
format
Normally,IfPthen
not
Q
to
Obviously,thispreconditionstillbelongs
notstrong
theencyclopedicknowledge
whichis
enough
to
to
differentiate
sentence
40from41.know
a
Inorder
context
doSO,itisnecessary
to
felicitousstandardthatin
a
given
r
thereshouldbesomestatementwhichPimplies
to
andQ
denies.Theletter
Can
beused
representthenegationofsuch
a
statement,whichis
an
overallimplicationof
thewholecontrastivesentence.ThestatementPthenimplies
notrout
andQ
implies
r
(Winter,1994).The
sentence
interpretationofpragmaticcontrastis
a
to
dig
theimplication.In
41,therecouldbe
possibler“Peterwent
notr。
out
forplayingbasketball”.Soitis
evidentthatPnormallyimplies
Accordingtotheprincipleofoptimalrelevance,theheareralwaysinclines
to
spend
theleastprocessingefforts.Sointheprocessofinterpretation,themomenthefeelsthecontextualeffectshavebeenachievedwiththeleasteffortshestopspursuingmoreefforts—consumingcontextualeffects.Sincethecontrastivecoherencerelationalwaysimplicateswill
cost
allr
behindthesuperficiallinguistic
form,there
is
no
doubtthattofindit
moreprocessingeffortsandtheinterpretationwillbeoverloaded.Andthis
one
illustrationcouldbeatleast
strongreason,ifnotall,todemonstratetheinclination
53
ofpreferring40to41。AndthemotivationofCDMsistoindicatethethemoreefforts-consumingimplicitknowledge.
The
whichnextpartwillbeallattempttohaveacasestudyofantithesisandconcessionaresubtypesofthecontrastivecoherencerelation.4.4.2TheCaseStudyofInterpretingAntithesisandConcession
Toindicateaspecialkindofrelationusedtointernalrepresentationofexternal
toworldandmanifesttheintensionofcommunicatorsinvolvestheconsiderableefforts
choosecertainlinguisticformsinordertohaveanexactindicatorevenforthesamecoherencerelmion.Afterreadingtheprecedingpart,themotivationtomarkcontrastivecoherencerelationsiswell
otherissuesknowntointhescopeofRT.However,therearestillsomebeawithinthistopicleftfuturediscussionastothedifferentdemanding
andofthosesubtypes.Asforthesubtypesofcontrastivecoherence
cone:essioncometorelations,antithesisbethemostconsiderableonesfortheirfrequentadoptioninlinguisticexpression.Accordingtonucleus
respects
readerSRST,forantithesis,thesituationspresentedinasandandcansatelliteareindifferinginacontrast,andshouldbecomprehendedthesameinmanyarefewrespectsfromwhichthedifferencescompared.So,nothavepositiveregardsforboththesituationspresentedinNandSeandtheincompatibilityincreasedreaders’positiveregardforthesituationinN.Asforconcession,thewriteracknowledgesapotentialorapparentincompatibilitybetweenthesituationspresentedinNandSandregardsthesituationspresentedinNandSare
forthesituationcompatible.Andthecompatibilityincreasesreaders’positiveregard
presentedinN(Mann&Thompson,1987).Actually,thedifferentiationofantithesisand
onconcessionrelies
beforehe
touttersthepresuppositionofthewriterontherelationbetweenNandSthediscourseandtheprocessbywhichtheeffectisachievedaccordingthistheory.IfSO,whatisthedifferenceofinterpretingantithesisandconcessionin谚NandSareusednamethesegmentsofasentence.whichisavariantfordifferenttypesofsentences?Usually,N
willbeisthemainclauseandSisthesub.clause.Ifitisasimplesentence,thesegmentaroundthefocusinformationto
N,andothersareS.54
theflameofRT?Now,considerthefollowingexample.
(42)Shehashad
work
a
very
difficulttimethissemester.ButIthinksheshouldhandinsomeofthe
(43)She
hashad
a
very
difficulttimethissemester.Nevertheless,I
think
sheshould
hand
in
someofthework.
(44)Althoughshehashad
thework.
a
verydifficulttimethissemester,1thinksheshouldhandin
someof
(45)Ithink
semeSter.
sheshouldhandinsomeofthework,althoughshehashadavery
difficulttimethis
Based
on
the
figuretheauthorhasgiven,tointerpret
are
a
discourse,themost
a
importantstepistoknowwhatthepositivecognitiveeffectsfour
sentencesare
incontext.Theabove
composedofthesamesegmentswhich
are
linkedbydifferentDMs
cause
showingdifferentattitudesandintentionsofthespeaker.ThosedifferenceswilldifferentcognitiveeffectsinthecognitiveenvironmentsofthehearerwhoimpliedintensionsmanifestedbythechoiceofdifferentDMsandmake
Concretely,theDMbutusedintreatingthedifficultyasroughlyequal
tOeven
anexcuse
sentence
a
can
catchthe
feedback.
42directlyeliminatesthepossibilityof
nothandinginthework.The
DMnevertheless,
a
SO,usedin
sentence
43admitsthefactthatshehashad
very
an
difficulttimethissemester,butdeniesthepossibilityoftreatingthedifficulty
excuse
as
not
handinginthework.TheDMalthoughusedin
as
sentences
44
and
45admitshanding
thepossibilityoftreatingthedifficultyinthework.
an
excuse
but
notstrong
enough
not
Intheframeofrelevance.theutilizationofencyclopedicrepresentationofthecontrary,the
antithesis
does
not
demandthe
shared
propositional
usually
meaningbeforethepresupposes
thatthe
DM.Onthe
propositional
utilization
ofconcession
meaningbeforetheDMhasbeenstoredinthecentralsystemsofthehearer,forwhichtheprocessingeffortsspent
on
concession
cost
more.Butthemoreeffortsgiveriseto
furthermoreeffectfortheconcessionusuallyexpressesmoreattitudesofthespeaker
55
besidesthenegationoftheproposition.So,itismucheasiertoknowtheacceptanceofaandweirdnessofbnowinthefollowingexample.
(46)【speaker,who
a1isinshocLisgivenwhiskey】But1don’tdrink.
?N『everthelessIdon’tdrink.
4.5Summary
Int11ischapter,thedistinctiverolesofDMsininterpretingdiscourseinthearerevealedframeworkofRT.Throughtheanalysis,itisdemonstratedthatDMshavethe
uncoverindicatingroleto
alsoowingtotheexplicatedandimplicatedmeaningsofonadiscourse,andonthedifferenteffectscontext,theycouldmakegreatinfluenceboth
the
attheostensiveendeavorsofspeakerandtheinferentialeffortsofthehearer.Basedonprecedingdiscussion,twofiguresaregiventoshowthewholeprocessofinterpreting
macroandmicronlevelintheframework
analysisofRTandalsothelatestfindingsoftheinferentialprocess.Afterthat,theofthemarkedcontrastivecoherencerelations
atstronglydemonstratesthemotivationofadoptingDMsthediscourselevel.
ChapterFive
Conclusion
5.1FindingsandImplicationsofthePresentStudy
AstheauthorhassaidinChapterone,themotivationespeciallyDCspusheshimhaveproducedhas
a
to
dig
to
out
thevaluesofDMs,
to
writethispaper,andthanks
on
thegreatscholarswho
a11
excellentfoundation
on
thistopicand
a
manageabletheory,theauthor
tentativestudyofDMstheprocessofinterpretingdiscourse.Comparedwith
thehypothesisinChapterthree,thediscussioninthischapteradmitstheproceduralmeaningof
DMs,andthedetailedinterpretingprocessshownbythefigurespresentsofDMsmainlydevelopsintheperiodofinferenceandthe
thattheproceduralmeaning
andsome
logicalentries.Aidedbytheclassicexamplesdemonstratedbyotherauthorsvaluable
ones
bytheauthorhimself,theauthormakes
a
contributioninthefollowing
threeaspects.
Firstly,theexistenceofDMsdoes
have
thefunction
on
bothlevelsofexplicatures
a
and
implicatureswhich
on
are
thedominatingtaskofinterpreting
to
discourse.Asforthe
language
roleofDMs
explicatures,owing
not
the
principle
ofeconomy,the
expressionsarealways
complete,whichadmitsthepossibilityandnecessityof
to
interpreting.So,theexistenceofDMsdoescontribute
digouttheexact,especially
thehigher-levelexplicatures.Asfortheimplicauresofdiscourse,sincethesegmentsof
a
discoursepermitthepossibilityofascribingdifferemcoherencerelationstothem,
are
there
differentpotentialimplicaturesmarkedbydifferentDMs.Throughtheanalysis,
areto
thefunctionsofDMs
make
a
selectionofthe
exact
explicatures
and
inferring
implicaturesamongallpossibilities.
Secondly,theauthorostensive.inferential
makesan
attempt
to
unveilthe
roles
significance
in
the
ofDMsinthe
process
of
communication
andtheir
whole
interpretationwithinthe
havetheability
to
frameworkofRT.Through
an
theanalysis,itisknownthatDMs
indicate
ostentivebehaviortoshowtheintentionsofspeakersby
improvingtheclarityofexplicatures.Ontheotherendofcommunication,thehearer
S7
makes
all
inferenceinvirtueofDMsandthedeductiverules,throughwhichtheofspeakersof
isuncovered.Inthethe
context
intentionfunctions
whole
processofcommunication,the
to
DMs
on
are
the
medium
produce
the
expected
Call
communicative
goalsbothforthespeakerandhearer.TheexistenceofDMsthechoiceofdifferentDMswill
cause
manifestthecontextualeffectsusuallyentries.
even
effects,and
different
withthesame
utterances.IntheframeworkofRT,theexistenceofDMs
cuts
downtheprocessingeffortsdirectly
and
producesmorerelevanceinlogical
Thirdly,themotivationofmarkingcontrastivecoherencerelationsisdiscovered.Inotherwords,theexistenceofCDMsdoe.shavetheevidenceindiscourseinterpretationintheframeworkofRT.Anditistheimplicatedpresuppositionwhichcostsmoreprocessingeffortsthatpushesthehearertheprinciplethattheprocessingdifference
between
pragmatic
to
chooseCDMs,anditcouldbeillustratedby
stopswhentheoptimalrelevance
and
concession
lies
on
achieves.The
or
contrast
theexistence
nonexistenceofthepreexistingencyclopedicknowledge.
5.2LimitationsandSuggestionsforFurtherStudy
This
thesishasmade
not
an
investigation
on
theimportantpointsofDMsindiscourse
interpretation,which
onlyimprovestheunderstandingofDMs,atthesametime,beworthdiscussing.
givesrisetosomeissues
to
Firstly,thispapernarrowsdowntheresearchofDMsintothelocalcoherencelevel,thatis
to
say,theeffect
on
theinterpretationofthe
adjacent
the
pairs.So,thisresearchisflowingof
a
heavilycoloredwith
communication.Actually,since
discourseis
the
continuous,theadoptionofcertainDMsdoes
pairs,butalsothe
sentences
notonlyhave
animpact
on
adjacent
at
inthelongerstretch.Owingtothis,theresearchofDMs
globallevelisworthdiscussing.
Secondly,the
exact
rolesofDMsindiscourseinterpretation,especiallythe
a
exact
momentandpositionwhereDMsplayroleisstillworthnoticingwiththefurther
researchontheworkingmechanismofmindandthedevelopmentoflinguistics.
aBesides,thispaperisonlytentativestudywithoutanyexperimentorexactstatisticsto
supportthehypothesis.So,theinterdisciplinaryresearchisneededtofindtheessenceandprinciplesofdiscourseinterpretationaffectedbyDMs.
Finally,theresearchonthecontrastsuppliesenoughroomtohavefurtherstudy.Thispaper,owingtotheresearchscopemarkingcontrastandspace,simplypointsoutthemotivationofintheframeworkofRT.However,asweallknow,thenumbersandclassificationsofCDMsarenumerousincludingthetraditionalcontrastiveconjunctions,adverbialsexpressingcontrastsand
commandsthefurtherstudy.SOon.So,theoverallandprofoundanalysis
59
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语篇识解中话语标记功能和理据研究——关联理论视角
作者:
学位授予单位:王晓伟河南大学
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