The Quest That Never Ends

This essay on the encounter of Diogenes and Alexander is really thought-provoking. I knew a little about the Doggishness’s theory before, but it’s after I read this essay that I thoroughly bury myself into the quest of contemplating some everlasting philosophical issues. But most of my thoughts are not systematic or complete so I’d like to present them as what Virginia Woolf did---the stream of consciousness.

The first question that came into my mind was what makes a human being different from the other creatures living on the earth. This question emerged when we discussed why human beings need houses to live in. Then the functions of a house were taken into account. And the basic functions of a place to rest and a protection from the external dangers were mentioned immediately. But in terms of these functions, other animals have their shelters too. So there must be something about a house that shelters don’t have. That is the protection of privacy. And it’s this sense of privacy, or a sense of shame that only exist in humans. And a certain sense of shame is stemmed from the consideration of how other people view on you. It depends on a certain standard in the system of institution in which you were born.

So ultimately, the sociality and the pass-on of this sociality (through cultural inheritance) are the distinctive features of human species. So it’s not abrupt to say that every human is unavoidably living in a particular cage of institution, constantly influenced by the past convention, the current reputation and the future conception. Even though Diogenes believed to lead a natural life without the restriction of the old convention, the thought itself can be another cage that may restrict people in a different way.

But does that mean we get nothing to do with these cages? I don’t think so. Because, other than that these cages are predestined to come into being, they can provide us sense of security and stability. What we need is the generosity that Alexander possessed to always be open to different viewpoints.

So it is for a whole civilization. After reading The Invitation of Anthropology, I’m astonished to realize how deeply cultural environment influence us. Everything I used to take for granted is not strictly supposed to be like what it is now. Our way of thinking is shaped by our certain institution. After knowing the totally different living situation of some ethnic group I’ve never heard before, I re-examine my viewpoint about the development of human species. The ability to modify the nature, which considered to be motivated by our constant desires were thought to be the sign of development undoubtedly by me and some of the classmates (when they argue that if there’s no desire, there’s no improvement). But now I accept the idea that there are only changes without an “up-or-down” direction in civilization, because different civilizations have different conventions to better gear to the nature. And whether a civilization is civilized or not can’t be judged by a standard from another system. It

can be evaluated by whether they reach happiness or not.

Then the analysis on the possessions of the rich got me thinking about the meaning of happiness. The discussions over happiness may start at the same time when human first emerged on the earth and has never ended. And most of them are linked with thoughts about desire. Some believe that eliminate desire, then you get happiness. Besides Cynicism, it’s the base of many kinds of religions: Buddhism, Taoism or Christianity. While others think the fulfillment of unlimited desire is the source of happiness, Epicurean’s theory and the philosophy of many people in the modern society.

It can’t be denied that in order to be an actual existence on earth, we need the body. And the body inherently needs to be fed, renewed and protected. So obviously, the basic desire of food, warmth and shelter can’t be eliminated. And Diogenes didn’t deny it too. So the main differences are among the desire on a so-called higher level: extravagance, power and so on. They are in the sense of things that are invisible and untouchable. But the single taste of them can definitely catch your tongue and a great sense of achievement can linger in your mouth over a long period of time. This sense of fulfillment is related to human’s distinctive feature---sociality that I’ve mentioned above. According to Epicurean, this kind of happiness on a spirit level is more profound and dynamic. But once you fulfill it, the happiness blows away quickly and your struggle for the other desire begins immediately. Then you’ve been caught in this spiral of longing for something without an end. And it’s impossible for you to get the ultimately highest level of anything. Then your depression at the end seems to be destined. So Diogenes thinks this happiness is perishable and the immortal happiness is not to enter this spiral at all, to keep the peace in one’s heart.

But for this issue, my opinion is different from both of them. One of the most stable beliefs I carry from my observation of the world is balance. Out of all the complexity of the diversity, I think there should always be a balanced point in it. This Golden Mean belief instructed by both Confucius and Aristotle, gives me faith in balancing the elimination of desire and the fulfillment of desire. The tricky part of it is to find a proper time to surrender, to both enjoy the happiness of achievement and diminish the depression of failure. Or it can be described as continence.

It seems that I’ve got some answers for each issue, but they are all changeable. These are the quests that have been discussed for thousands of years and will never end. I’ll always bear them in mind as long as I breathe.

 

第二篇：Greek Culture

Greek Culture Ancient Greece--- no fixed dates for the beginning or the end of the period. In common usage it refers to all Greek history before the Roman Empire.

Its history is usually divided into several periods, among which we introduce three of them. ? 1600 BC to about 1100 BC

History of Mycenaean Greece

This period is known for the reign of King Agamemnon, and the wars against Troy.

It is the historical setting of the epics of Homer and much other Greek mythology.

? 1100 BC to the 8th century BC

The word ―dark‖ here refers to the period of Greek prehistory. No primary texts, and only scant archaeological evidence, survive.

8th century BC to 323 BC

The reign of Alexander the Great

This period ended with his death in 323 BC.

Alexander III, commonly known in the West as Alexander the Great or Alexander of Macedon, King of Macedon (336 BC-323 BC), was one of the most successful military commanders of the ancient world. He is known in some eastern traditions such as the Middle-Persian literature as Alexander the Cursed due to his burning of the Persian capital and national library. How to appraise him? He was on a divinely-inspired(神授) mission to unite the human race. He was the ancient world’s equivalent of Napoleon I of France or Adolf Hitler, a megalomaniac(自大狂的) bent on world domination.

A great deal of controversy about the identity of Homer.

? First recorder of former oral, epic poems served to entertain the ancient Greeks ? author of The Iliad and The Odyssey

? The two major epics of ancient Greece, a major part of ancient history, especially

that of Ancient Greece, thought by some to have been the backbone of an ancient Greek youth's education.

The Iliad is set in the final year of the Trojan war.

The odyssey describes the return of the Greek hero Odysseus(Ulysses) from the Trojan war.

A famous war waged by the Greeks against the city of Troy in Greek legend.

A golden apple, inscribed“for the fairest‖ was thrown by Eris, goddess of discord, among the heavenly guests at the wedding of Peleus, and Thetis. Paris was asked to decide, among three goddesses, Aphrodite, Athena, and Hera, which is the most beautiful. The apple goes to Aphrodite and in turn Paris gains Helen, the most beautiful woman in the world, who was wife of Menelaus of Sparta. An expedition under the command of Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, set out and

therefore the Trojan War. The siege lasted ten years. The first nine of which were uneventful. In the tenth year, trojan horse, an instrument of war used by the Greeks to gain access to the city of Troy, leading to the Fall of Troy. A handful of armed Greeks climbed into the hollow belly of the giant wooden horse and the Trojans seized it and brought it into the city. That night the Greek army emerged from the horse and sacked the city.

? The epic tells of Odysseus's ten years of traveling.

? The second half of the poem: Odysseus's arrival at his home island of Ithaca.

Calypso - The sea nymph(仙女) who keeps Odysseus captive for seven years and who, in hope of making him her husband, offers him immortality. The inhabitants of Land of the Lotus Eaters were amiable, but those of Odysseus' men who ate of the lotus, a local plant, quickly lost all memory of home and duty. Odysseus and his men who did not eat the plant dragged the men who did eat it back to the ship and sailed on., Polyphemus were the Cyclops who confined Odysseus and his companions in a cave until Odysseus blinded him and escaped. The sorceress Circe transformed the crew of Odysseus into swine. When she found that she could not conquer Odysseus, took him as a lover and helped him with advice and supplies on his voyage home. The Sirens, one of a group of sea nymphs who by their sweet singing lured mariners to destruction on the rocks surrounding their island.

Penelope, the wife of Odysseus, is serious and industrious, a perfect wife and mother in many aspects. Exercising infinite patience and self-control, Odysseus tests the loyalty of his servants; plots and carries out a bloody revenge on Penelope's suitors; and is reunited with his son, his wife, and his aged father.

Greeks performed plays at religious festivals. A powerful drama developed in the 5th century B.C. Performances were given in open-air theatres, with the audience sitting on stone benches and looking down at the stage from three sides.

? Aeschylus (525-456 B.C.)---noted for his vivid character portrayal and majestic poetry. Prometheus Bound

-composed almost entirely of speeches;

-identified Zeus as a tyrant（暴君） and criminal

? Sophocles (496-406 B.C.)--- has had a strong impact on European literature, contributed

greatly to tragic art.

Oedipus the King

-“the Oedipus complex” Austrian psychiatrist Freud’s term.

? Euripides (484-406)---more of a realist, concerned with conflicts, may be called the first

writer of ―problem plays, ―the most tragic of the poets‖, ―Euripides the human‖.

-Characters are less heroic,

-more like ordinary people.

Medea

It’s from Greek Mythology. A princess and sorceress(女巫) of Colchis (科尔喀斯国) who helped Jason (伊阿宋) obtain the Golden Fleece (金羊毛), lived as his consort妻子, and killed their

children as revenge for his infidelity. Medea left in a chariot drawn by dragons.

? The Boy Who Cried Wolf (Even when liars tell the truth, they are never believed.)

? The Fox and the Grapes (It is easy to despise what you cannot get.)

? The Wolf in Sheep's Clothing (Appearances are deceptive) Mythology/abbr. Myth: specific accounts of gods or superhuman beings

In Greek myth, all the gods live on Mount Olympus. The chief god is called Zeus who keeps order with thunderbolts. His wife, Hera, is the goddess responsible for marriage and family. His brother, Poseidon, is the god looking after the seas. Another brother Hades reigns the under world. His daughter, Athena, is a deity of wisdom. Apollo is Zeus’ son, who is the god of the sun. Apollo’s twin sister Artemis is the goddess of the moon. Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty, is said to be Zeus’ daughter. Hephaestus, the husband of Aphrodite, is the god of metal-working. Hermes is the son of Zeus and works as Zeus’ messenger and servant. Eros is the god of love. Dionysus is the god of wine, intoxication, and creative ecstasy. Hercules, son of Zeus, is a hero of extraordinary strength who won immortality by performing 12 labors demanded by Hera.

? Pandora’s box 万恶之源

? Achilles' heel 致命弱点

? Penelope's web 完不成的任务

? Gordian knot; 难题，僵局cut the Gordian knot 快刀斩乱麻

? odyssey: 长期的漂泊[冒险旅行]; (思想探索变化等的)漫长历程

Socrates

? no written accounts of his real life. his accomplishments shown through his disciples’

writing.

? Socrates’ elenctic（辩驳的） method was often imitated by the young men of Athens,

which greatly upset the established moral values and order.

? He questioned everything, everyone. He questioned influential figures of his day of their

wisdom and virtue.

? Socrates’ thinking: 1. Scant regard for material wealth. 2. Keenness on probing into

definition of ethical and behavioral terms like ―friendship‖ ―courage‖. Ignorance is a source of evil and wrongdoing. Virtue is a source of knowledge.

? He was tried for corrupting the youth of Athens. He was sentenced to drink hemlock,

which cost him his life.

Plato

? ca. 427 BC – ca. 347 BC

? an immensely influential classical Greek philosopher

? founded one of the earliest known organized schools in Western civilization--Academy ? Plato Quotes: At the touch of love everyone becomes a poet. Ignorance, the root and the

stem of every evil. I never did anything worth doing by accident, nor did any of my inventions come by accident; they came by work.

? Plato’s Dialogues

1. Apology: Socrates’ defense of himself at trial

2. Symposium: beauty and love

3. Republic: the ideal state ruled by a philosopher but barring poets.

Aristotle

? Aristotle is known for being one of the few figures in history who studied almost every

subject possible at the time.

? Established Peripatetic School逍遥学派in Athens with the financial support from

emperor Alexander. (cf. Platonic school’s Academy)

? Politics: political concerns

? Poetics: a treatise on literary theory

? Rhetoric: the art of persuading an audience

Contending Schools of thought

? Stoicism斯多葛学派,淡泊主义Indifference to pleasure or pain

? Epicureanism伊壁鸠鲁学说considering happiness, or the avoidance of pain and

emotional disturbance, to be the highest good.

? Cynicism犬儒主义 A scornful, bitterly mocking attitude. Diogenes戴奥真尼斯and

Alexander the Great. ―only to stand out of my light‖ showed Diogenes was Impatient with the rich and powerful. He stressed self-control and the pursuit of virtue. He is said to have once wandered through the streets of Athens with a lantern, searching for an honest man.

? Scepticism怀疑主义A doubting or questioning attitude

Pythagoras

? he was considered the first true mathematician

? Pythagorean theorem/Proposition勾股定理,毕达哥拉斯定理

Archimedes

? The ratio of radius of a circle

? Relationship between the volume and surface of a sphere

? principle of the lever

? credited with inventing the compound pulley.

Euclid

? Greek mathematician

? Euclidean geometry—father of geometry

? greatly influenced Western art through the present day.

? only a minor assortment（分类）of ancient Greek art has survived.

? in the forms of sculpture, architecture, coin design, pottery and gem engraving

The Parthenon in Athens

An enduring symbol of Greek culture

? It has stood atop the Acropolis of Athens for nearly 2,500 years

? It was built to give thanks to Athena, the city's patron goddess

? The building was officially called the Temple of Athena the Virgin. Its popular name

derives from the Greek word (parthenos), a virgin.

Erechtheum

? notable for an elegant and unusual design. on the north side of the Acropolis of Athens ? built between 421 BC and 407 BC

? a replacement for an older temple

? on the site of some of the most ancient and holy relics of the Athenians

? with columns known as caryatids女像柱sculpted as figures of women

Discus thrower

by Myron米伦, Greek sculptor (circa 460 B.C.)

Venus de Milo

? Melos: the Cyclades islands

? of the late Hellenistic period, which revives classical themes while innovating.

Laocoon and his sons

Fear, Sympathy, terror– subject for discussion

The Great Altar of Zeus

? constructed by Eumenes II (197-159 BC) as a memorial of his victory against the

Galatians.

? the shape of a horseshoe

? the high reliefs depicting the war between the giants and the gods.

? Reconstruction of the great altar at Pergamum in Berlin， famous for its elaborate frieze

檐壁

The Impact of Greek Culture

1. Spirit of Innovation

? ―They invented mathematics and science and philosophy;

? They first wrote history as opposed to mere annals（编年史）;

? They speculated freely about the nature of the world and the ends of life, without being

bound in the fetters of any inherited orthodoxy.‖

---by Bertrand Russell

2. Supreme Achievement

The Greeks achieved supreme achievements in nearly all fields of human endeavor: philosophy, science, epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, lyric poetry, historical writing, architecture, sculpture, etc

3. Lasting Effect

? The Greeks set an example to understand the world by the use of human reason.

? In literature, the influence can still be felt today.