本科毕业论文标准范文

重大环境污染事故罪主观方面探析

My Heart Will Go On

学生姓名: 杨佳楠

指导老师: 张老师

学 院: 教育科学学院

专业班级: 教育技术学

佳木斯大学教育科学学院

2012-3-16

I

摘要

重大环境污染事故罪的主观方面应排除故意,而包括过失和推定过失。英美法系的严格责任和我国民法的过错推定实质是一致的,它没有违背主客观相统一原则,没有否认罪过作为犯罪构成的必要构成要素,它仍是过错责任的一部分。环境污染具有众多特殊性,为了应对这种特殊性,更好地打击环境犯罪,维护公共利益和保护公民的合法权益,重大环境污染事故罪主观方面的认定中应引进严格责任。故本罪的主观方面应当以过错责任为原则、以严格责任为辅助。作为客观归罪的绝对责任应排除在本罪主观方面之外。完善现行刑法对本罪之规定,应就适用严格责任作出明文规定,并对严格责任作出一定的限制如允许辩护理由的存在。司法实践中,对违反国家规定的行为和严重后果持故意的行为,不构成本罪而应根据其行为的主客观要件等犯罪事实,依据刑法的其他规定如投放危险物质罪定罪处罚。

关键词:重大环境污染事故罪,主观方面,严格责任,绝对责任,推定过失

II

Abstract

The subjective aspects of the crime of great environmental pollution accident should remove intent, but including fault and constructive fault. The strict liability in the common law is consistent with the essence of fault deduce in our civil law, which does not go against the principle of subjective aspect according to objective aspect, does not deny subjective fault as a necessary element composing a crime, is still a part of the fault liability. Environmental pollution has a lot of particularity, for dealing with this kind of particularity, better striking environment crime, safeguarding the public interests and protecting the legitimate rights and interests of citizens, it is necessary for us to introduce the strict responsibility to the crime of great environmental pollution accident. So referring to the subject aspect of this crime, fault liability should be applied firstly, auxiliary the strict liability. Absolute liability should be excluded from the criminal law for its nature of objective culpability.we should make it clear in the criminal Law that this crime can apply to strict liability and the limit to it such as allowing the presence of defense. In judicial practice, for the case that the defendant holds intent not only to the behavior violating country regulation but also to the serious consequences, it does not compose this crime,we should convict the right crime as what it should be according to subjective and objective aspects,such as the crime of putting hazardous substances.

Key words: crime of great environmental pollution accident/ subjective aspect/ strict liability/ absolute liability/ constructive fault

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引 言

随着社会经济的飞速发展,工业生产水平也得到极大提高。人们在享受工业生产给社会聚集的巨大财富,给生活带来的便利和舒适的同时,人们所赖以生存的自然环境却在遭受着空前的污染和破坏。为了打击环境犯罪,保护广大公民的生命健康、公私财产的安全,97年《刑法》在第六章妨害社会管理秩序罪中的第六节专设了破坏环境资源罪,规定了一系列污染环境和破坏自然资源的犯罪,其中第338条重大环境污染事故罪就是非常重要的一条。但是重大环境污染事故罪在理论和司法实践中都存在很多问题。

首先,关于它的主观方面的认定就存在很多争议。不同的学者有不同的主张,主要观点有本罪主观方面只能是故意;本罪主观方面既可以是故意,也可以是过失;本罪主观方面只能是过失;本罪的主观方面包括故意、过失和无过失。笔者对这些观点均不敢苟同,本文的相应部分将对其进行研究和评析。

其次,关于不仅对违反国家规定的行为且对严重后果都持故意心态的行为,有学者主张仍应该按照本罪来定罪处罚。而另有学者主张应根据其行为的主客观要件,依据刑法的其他规定定罪处罚。对此本篇也予以探析。

再次,由于环境污染有其特殊性,即其具有专业性、技术性、长期性、隐蔽性、后果严重性和难恢复性的特点,如果无视这种特殊性,仍按照传统的过错责任原则追究行为人的刑事责任,势必让一部分重大环境污染者逃脱刑责。为应对这种特殊性,有学者提出在重大环境污染事故罪中引进严格责任,而另有学者因为严格责任有违于主客观相统一原则,不利于经济建设且有失公平等原因从而反对本罪适用严格责任。本文认为严格责任适用于本罪,但应当进行限制。

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1.重大环境污染事故罪主观方面观点概述

在刑法学界,关于重大环境污染事故罪主观方面的争议很大,但概括起来有以下几种:

1.1.本罪主观方面只能是故意

即行为1 重大环境污染事故罪主观方面观点述评

人明知其行为是违反国家环境保护法规规定的行为,仍然实施,过失不构成本罪。

1.2.本罪主观方面既可以是故意,也可以是过失

但是这种主张又可以分为两种观点:第一种认为主要是过失但也不排除故意(即一般或多数情况下表现为过失,个别或少数情况下表现为故意,且多是间接故意即行为人明知非法排放、倾倒或者处置有害废物行为会发生重大环境污染事故,致使公私财产遭受重大损失或者人身伤亡的严重后果,而放任这种结果的发生)。第二种认为主要是故意(多是间接故意)但也不排除过失。

1.3.本罪主观方面只能是过失

即行为人对自己的行为会发生重大环境污染事故,致使公私财产遭受重大损失或者人身伤亡的严重后果本应预见,但由于疏忽大意没有预见,或者虽已预见但轻信能够避免的心理状态。至于行为人对违反国家的规定,排放、倾倒或者处置有害废物这一行为本身则通常是有意的。

1.4.本罪的主观方面包括故意、过失和无过失

故意是指行为人明知其行为是违反国家环境保护法规规定的行为,仍然实施。但也不排除过失和无过失。

1.5..重大环境污染事故罪主观方面诸观点评析

上述这些观点中,第一种认为只能由故意构成,第二、第四种均认为包括故意(主要是间接故意),对此笔者均不敢苟同。针对第一种观点,笔者认为首先它没有区分对行为的主观心态和对结果的主观心态。从刑法第338条对本罪的描述来看本罪属于依法定结果为构成要件的结果犯,那么要看对结果的主观心态,至于对行为本身是故意还是过失并不影响本①

③①②③参见周道鸾著:《刑法的修改和适用》,人民法院出版社19xx年版,第691页。 参见陈兴良著:《刑法哲学》,中国政法大学出版社19xx年版,第165页。 刑法第338条,违反国家规定,向土地、水体、大气排放、倾倒或者处臵有放射性的废物、含传染病病原体的废物、有毒物质或者其他危险废物,造成重大环境污染事故,致使公私财产遭受重大损失或者人身伤亡的严重后果的,处三年以下有期徒刑或者拘役,并处或者单处罚金;后果特别严重的,处三年以上七年 1

罪的性质。实际上,现实生活中以明知行为违反国家规定而为之是常态。其次,直接故意,是明知自己的行为会发生危害社会的结果并希望其发生的心理状态。其认识因素有两种情况:一是明知其行为必然会发生某种后果;二是明知其行为可能会发生某种后果。其意志因素是希望,即犯罪人对于危害结果抱着积极追求的态度。换言之,这个结果的发生,就是犯罪人通过一系列犯罪活动所需达到的目的。而现实生活中我们可想而知,环境和人类息息相关,它是人类生存和发展的物质基础,人类无法回避环境污染给自身所造成的危害,所以行为主体不可能追求或希望污染环境危害后果的发生,所以排除了直接故意的可能。针对第二种、第四种观点认为包括间接故意,笔者认为如果本罪的主观方面不包括直接故意那么就不应包括间接故意,因为同属故意仅因为表现形式不尽相同就要将它们区别开来,分别定罪量刑,如间接故意得定重大环境污染事故罪直接故意得定投放危险物质罪,实在不能让人信服。另外,笔者不完全赞同第三种观点即认为本罪的主观方面只能由过失构成。

2.本罪主观方面:排除故意

上面笔者已经论述过了本罪的主观方面排除故意,但现实生活中不乏不仅对违反国家规定的行为且对严重后果都持故意(主要是间接故意)心态的例子。如下面这一案例。

2.1.本罪主观方面案例

江苏省张家港市港口乡泗安村向阳化工厂系一家村办小厂,连厂长共5名职工。该厂只有一间平房、两只铁锅和几口大缸,濒临倒闭。19xx年,曹保章承包了向阳化工厂。在明知本厂无能力处理含氰化钠、氰化钾的有毒工业废渣的情况下,于19xx年1月4日与上海锯条总厂签订了处理钢锯热处理产生的含氰废渣的协议。协议规定:自19xx年1月起,上海锯条总厂将每月约10吨的含氰废渣委托向阳化工厂处理;向阳化工厂必须按当地环保部门规定处理含氰废渣,坚决杜绝二次污染,不能存放在露天场所等等。签约后的当月,曹保章即派职工两人雇本村李正华的一条渡船到宝山区刘行乡上海锯条厂热处理车间装运含氰废渣。临行前,曹保章对3人说:“下脚料有毒,不要带回来,偷偷扔到河里,千万不要被人看见。”于是,三人遵嘱行事,含氰废渣全部被抛入沿途河中。事后,曹将此“妙法”①[5]告诉陆垣福,陆称赞说“这办法好!”此后,每月都有10吨含氰废渣被抛入宝山区、嘉定县及江苏太仓县的水域中。自19xx年1月至19xx年8月,曹保章指使陆垣福、陈祥兴等人先后25次将294吨含氰废渣抛入水中,折合成纯氰化物20多吨,致使大面积水域遭到严重污染,大量鱼及水生生物死亡,当地自来水厂停 以下有期徒刑,并处罚金。

①参见陈仁、朴光诛著:《环境执法基础》,法律出版社19xx年版,第354页。

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止供水,部分企业停产,造成直接经济损失210多万元,并给环境和人民群众身体健康造成巨大潜在危害,也在群众心理上投下了恐惧的阴影。与此相对的是曹保章等人从处理费、运输费等方面牟利7.3万多元。

(二)本罪主观方面案例评析

大家知道,过失犯罪,或者是应当预见而没有预见的疏忽大意的过失或者是已经预见但轻信能够避免的过于自信的过失,行为人对危害结果的发生既不希望也不放任,从根本上说危害结果的发生是完全是违背行为人的主观愿望的。而本案例中,曹保章为牟取暴利,明知本厂无处理含氰废渣的能力却签订协议,而故意向水域投放含氰废渣,造成水生生物死亡,自来水厂停止供水,部分企业停产等重大公私财产损失。这种主观心理状态已超出了过失的范畴,至少属于放任危害结果发生的间接故意的内容。那么针对这样的案例司法实践中我们该怎样适用法律怎样定罪量刑呢?主要有两种观点:

一种认为仍应该按照本罪来定罪处罚。这也主要是主张本罪的主观方面包括故意至少是间接故意的学者所持的观点。

另外一种认为,如果明知而故意为之,则不构成本罪而应根据其行为的主客观要件等犯罪事实,是什么最就按什么罪论处。

笔者认为本罪的主观方面排除括故意,所以不赞同第一种观点。且如果一定要按本罪定罪处罚,则故意犯罪与过失犯罪法定刑相同,也有悖罪责刑相适应原则。当然也不能不处罚,否则将导致过失犯罪受处罚,而主观恶性更大的故意犯罪反而不受处罚的更不合理的局面。笔者赞同第二种观点,认为应该根据行为人的主客观要件事实按相关的故意犯罪论处,它是解决本罪适用法律尴尬局面的正确做法。

实践中,如行为人明知自己非法处置危险物质的行为会危及不特定多数人的生命、健康或公私财产的安全,而仍希望或者放任这种危害结果的发生,则应以投放危险物质论处。进一步说实际上很多情况下刑法中关于投放危险物质罪的规定都可以解决重大环境污染事故罪的危险犯和故意犯的处罚问题。刑法第114条规定:放火、决水、爆炸以及投放毒害性、放射性、传染病病原体等物质或者以其他危险方法危害公共安全,尚未造成严重后果的,处3年以上10年以下有期徒刑。第115条规定:放火、决水、爆炸以及投放毒害性、放射性、传染病病原体等物质或者以其他危险方法致人重伤、死亡或者使公私财产遭受重大损失的,处10年以上有期徒刑、无期徒刑或者死刑。过失犯前款罪的,处3年以上7年以下有期徒刑;情节较轻的,处3年以下有期徒刑或者拘役。第114条规定了投放危险物质罪的危险犯情况,第115条规定了它的故意犯和过失犯。

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首先,从条文可以看出投放危险物质罪和重大环境污染事故罪的行为对象有相似性,前者为毒害性、放射性、传染病病原体等物质,后者为放射性的废物、含传染病病原体的废物、有毒物质或者其他危险废物。行为对象的相似性让它们有了竞合的可能性。其次,笔者是认可对重大环境污染事故罪的客体持广义客体说的观点的。即认为重大环境污染事故罪所侵犯的客体不仅是国家环境保护和污染防治的管理制度,而且包括生态环境利益和公民的人身权、公私财产权。既然本罪的侵犯客体包括公民的人身权、公私财产权,且由于环境污染的广泛性和普遍性,所以从某种程度上讲重大环境污染事故罪也是对公共安全的侵犯。因为所谓公共安全是指不特定多数人生命、健康的安全和重大公私财产的安全。所以笔者认为重大环境污染事故罪和投放危险物质罪的侵犯客体也有相同之处。

综上所述,笔者认为我们可以利用投放危险物质罪的完善规定即它关于处罚危险犯的规定和它明确惩罚故意犯罪的规定来弥补重大环境污染事故罪的不足,当然这是在符合投放危险物质罪构成要件的前提下进行的。具体说来是当主体、客体、客观方面都相同的情况下,仅因主观方面的不同可分别定罪量刑,即当主观方面是过失时定重大环境污染事故罪,当主观方面超出过失的范畴如是间接故意时定投放危险物质罪。两个法条相互补充、相得益彰、根据具体情况具体适用。这样可以有效解决司法实践中法律适用时遇到的尴尬问题,即本罪的主观方面不包括故意,但现实生活中又不乏主观为故意的案例,这时我们该怎样定罪量刑的问题。如此适用也符合罪责刑相适应原则,可以有效惩治环境犯罪,遏制环境污染的强劲势头。

三、本罪主观方面:过失和推定过失

笔者认为本罪的主观方面理应包括过失和推定过失。这里的过失是指行为人对于自己的行为可能造成重大环境污染事故而致公私财产遭受重大损失或人身伤亡的严重后果应当预见,但由于疏忽大意而没有预见,或者虽已预见但轻信能够避免的心理态度。这里的②①

推定过失是指当行为人违反国家规定造成重大环境污染事故致使出现公私财产遭受重大损失或人身伤亡的严重后果,控诉方不能证明行为人的主观罪过即行为人主观方面是出于故意还是过失,而行为人又不能证明自己主观上不存在过错或者虽有过失但已尽能力避免或者有其他合理的辩护理由时,就推定行为人主观上存在过错(至少是过失)而要其承担刑事责任的情况。③ ①

②因为危险犯不是本文的讨论重点,所以对本罪处罚危险犯的情况不予讨论。 至于行为人违反国家规定实施排放、倾倒、处臵危险废物这一行为本身,则可能出于过失,也可能出于故意,但均不影响本罪的过失犯罪性质。

③这是因为根据一般人的生活经验,某些行为、状态或结果出现的本身在绝大多数情况下就能说明行为人的 4

(一)过失:本罪的主观方面

笔者认为本罪的主观方面包括过失的理由如下:

1、本罪的处罚条件

本罪的处罚以发生重大环境污染事故,造成公私财产的重大损失或者人身伤亡的严重后果为条件,否则不作为犯罪处罚。这是过失犯罪的基本特征,根据过失结果无价值理论,我国刑法中过失犯罪都以发生某种严重后果为前提。

2、本罪的量刑幅度

本罪有两个量刑幅度,造成严重后果的处三年以下有期徒刑或者拘役,并处或者单处罚金; 后果特别严重的,处三年以上七年以下有期徒刑,并处罚金。由此看出本罪的法定刑与其他过失犯罪的法定刑完全一致。如刑法第134条重大责任事故罪,第233条过失致人死亡罪。本罪如包括故意犯罪,显然法定刑偏轻,有违罪责刑相适应原则。因此,从法定刑方面也可以推论本罪属于过失犯罪。

3、本罪的原始依据

事故一词是本罪被定为过失犯罪的原始依据,事故意味着突发的意外的变故或灾祸,这与过失犯罪的心理特征相吻合,也符合立法者惩罚环境犯罪的立法原意。

(二)推定过失

笔者认为本罪的主观方面还包括推定过失的理由是笔者赞同本罪适用严格责任。因为其实当我们把严格责任的内涵和外延搞清楚之后,我们会发现,就其实质内容而言,严格责任和我国民法的过错推定相一致,如《民法通则》第126条规定的建筑物致人损害。而绝对责任则对应于我国民法的无过错责任(通常我们也叫做严格责任),如《民法通则》第124条规定的环境污染致人损害。概括说来,严格责任的实质内涵就是推定过失,适用严格责任就意味着该罪的主观方面可以是推定过失。

但是关于本罪能否适用严格责任的纷争历来不断,其症结点在于对严格责任的涵义不明、不统一,且与无过失责任、绝对责任等相近概念在使用上存在混乱。严格责任和绝对责任的概念本来自英美法系,当被引进我国时由于种种原因,我们对它们的涵义产生了曲解。博登海默说过:“概念是解决法律问题所必需的和必不可少的工具,没有限定严格的专门概 主观恶意,除非被告有能力证明自己的清白。

①刑法第134条,工厂、矿山、林场、建筑企业或者其他企业、事业单位的职工,由于不服管理、违反规章制度,或者强令工人违章冒险作业,因而发生重大伤亡事故或者造成其他严重后果的,处三年以下有期徒刑或者拘役;情节特别恶劣的,处三年以上七年以下有期徒刑。刑法第233条,过失致人死亡的,处三年以上七年以下有期徒刑;情节较轻的,处三年以下有期徒刑.本法另有规定的,依照规定。 ②民法通则第126条,建筑物或者其他设施以及建筑物上的搁臵物、悬挂物发生倒塌、脱落、坠落造成他人损害的,它的所用人或者管理人应当承担民事责任,但能够证明自己没有过错的除外。

5 ②①

念,我们便不能清楚和理性地思考法律问题”。我们也知道,概念是对事物本质和特征的高度概括,它决定着事物的属性、功能、地位和作用,同时也是我们逻辑思维的起点。如果概念不明不统一,肯定与否定并非指向同一对象,那么争议再多也是枉然,也不会有什么有意义的结果。所以接下来我们将在把严格责任和绝对责任的概念界定清楚地情况下,详细论证笔者认为本罪的主观方面包括推定过失即本罪能适用严格责任的理由。

四、严格责任于本罪之适用

(一)严格责任和绝对责任之辨析

严格责任经历了一个渐进的和缓慢的演变过程,但我们现在讨论的严格责任是这样一种情况:对于某些特殊的犯罪,法官并不把犯意作为决定刑事责任的先决条件要求检察官加以证明,只要被告实施了一定的为法律所禁止的行为,而被告又不能证明自己主观上不存在过错,包括已尽自己的能力去注意和避免,则被告可能被判有罪。而绝对责任是指对于某些特殊的案件,犯意并不是犯罪构成的必要要件,犯意的存在与否,不仅检察官无需证明,而且被告也不能据此作为辩护的理由;即使被告不存在值得谴责的过错,即使被告的行为是基于合理的错误认识,即使被告认为自己具有犯罪定义所规定的某个特殊的辩护理由,只要检察官证明被告实施了某种犯罪行为,被告就能被定罪。

在这里我们尤其需要特别强调的是严格责任并没有违背主客观相统一原则,它并没有否认罪过作为犯罪构成的必要构成要素,它只是将证明自己没有故意或者过失罪过表现的证明责任适当转移给被告承担。在被告的行为经控方证明是存在的情况下,如果被告能提出合理的抗辩事由以证明自己在实施该行为时不存在过错,或者在过失的情形下证明自己已尽注意的责任,则会被判无罪,反之则会被定罪。但在绝对责任的情形下,被告有没有犯意并不需要检察官证明,被告也不能以此作为辩护的理由,只要被告实施了为法律所禁止的行为,即被定罪。由此我们可以看出,绝对责任由于其不问主观过错有客观归罪之嫌,所以绝对责任的适用受到了及其严格的限制。而严格责任由于现实社会的需要还会有比较大的适用空②①间。

(二)本罪适用严格责任之争议

1、否定说 ①参见博登海默著、邓正来译:《法理学――法律哲学与法律方法》,中国政法大学出版社19xx年版,第486骆梅芬:《英美法系刑事法律中严格责任与绝对责任之比辨析》,载《中山大学学报》19xx年第5期,第页。 ②

116~117页。

6

一些学者反对在本罪中适用严格责任,主要基于以下理由:(1)严格责任违背了我国的犯罪构成理论,有悖于我国刑法主客观相统一原则和罪责刑相适应原则。按照传统刑法理论,司法机关在追究犯罪时,不仅要证明行为人有犯罪行为,而且要证明这种犯罪行为是在其故意或者过失的心理状态支配下进行的。而严格责任的出现,使得司法机关无需证明行为人的罪过,这不符合犯罪构成理论主观方面要件的要求,有客观归罪之嫌。(2)经济上的消极影响。它使企业将工作重心从革新与发展经济转移到采取更多的预防措施,以免受犯罪指控,这样使企业谨小慎微,瞻前顾后,不敢放开手脚,丧失应有的开拓进取精神,抑制经济发展,与我国社会主义初级阶段以经济建设为中心的发展要求不相适应。(3)严格责任导致刑法打击面过宽,适用严格责任的犯罪本质上不需要通过刑罚手段来调整,这样不仅有刑法滥用的嫌疑而且打乱了以行政制裁和民事制裁为主的体系。(4)严格责任过分追求效率而有失公平。 效率和公平是刑事诉讼法的两大价值目标,和效率相比,公平永远都是第一位的,追求效率应当在保证公平的基础上进行,否则,这种效率没有任何意义可言,以牺牲公平为代价的效率本身就是一种非平义[16]①。换句话说就是诉讼的根本价值在于追求公平,如果以强调诉讼效率为名,实行严格责任原则,实际上是一种本末倒置。(5)严格责任违反人性,并不会产生预期的效果。选择理论认为人是自由人和理性人,支配犯罪行为的犯罪意志的产生是人理性选择的结果,那么我们通过对其施加大于其犯罪所得利益的痛苦和惩罚就可以改变或抑制其犯罪意志,改变与社会对立的态度,从而达到预防犯罪的目的。而在适用严格责任的情况下,由于犯罪人主观上不存在罪过,那么无论对其施加多大的刑罚都不可能达到预防犯罪的目的。

2、肯定说

另有许多学者赞同在本罪中引进严格责任,针对否定说提出了有力的批驳。笔者也持肯定说,针对上述的否定观点,提出辩解理由如下:

(1)正如我们前面所述,严格责任并没有违背主客观相统一原则,它没有否认罪过作为犯罪构成的必要要素。在适用严格责任时,仍然要求行为必须符合犯罪构成的四大要件即主体、主观方面、客体、客观方面,只不过免去了起诉时控诉方对被告主观方面的证明责任,而将该证明自己没有故意或者过失罪过表现的责任适当转移给被告承担。如果被告能提出合理的抗辩事由以证明自己在实施该行为时不存在过错或者在过失的情形下证明自己已尽注意的责任,那么被告则无须承担刑事责任。所以严格责任的适用并不违背我国刑法主客观相①②英美国家适用严格责任的犯罪往往是刑法中规定的微罪、违警罪等犯罪种类。

黄广进:《英美刑法中的严格责任在辨正》,载《江南大学学报》20xx年第5期,第49页。

7 ②

统一的犯罪构成理论,它本身仍然是个主客观相统一的概念,它本质上未脱离过错责任的轨道,只不过是罪过原则的灵活变通,体现了刑法的公正、公平和效率等价值。

(2)对经济建设产生负面影响对是否引进严格责任的探讨有重要的启发意义,但我们也不能犯“唯经济主义”的错误,经济效果特别是具有暂时性的经济效果不应该成为判断一切的标准。事实上,放任对环境的污染和破环恰恰会对经济发展构成巨大的威胁,让整个社会包括企业为之付出巨大的经济代价。良好的环境是经济良性发展的基础,资本主义国家所走的先污染后治理的道路的严重后果,我们今天也看的清清楚楚,我们不应再走这样的老路。我们必须坚持“环境保护和经济发展相协调”的方针,经济必须走可持续发展的道路。为此我们应引进严格责任因为这样会迫使行为人自警督促行为人在活动中对自己的行为给予更多的注意,尽可能的为大众利益着想,加强行为人的责任心,从而达到预防环境污染的发生,遏制环境犯罪出现的目的。

(3)意大利刑法学家帕多瓦尼说过:“人们为一个民事或行政规范规定刑事制裁,并将其改造为刑法规范的主要原因,是因为某种违反该规范的行为不可能用民事或行政措施加以制裁,或者采用民事或行政措施不足以制裁该行为,如果出现这种情况,人们就只能转而求助于刑事制裁,以保障该规范的执行[20]①。”可以说我国环境污染的严峻形势已经达到了这样一种程度即让我们不得不启动刑事制裁来制止环境犯罪了。现实生活中,民事法律和行政法律对人民大众的威信力和威慑力都不够,这导致它们的效力有很大的局限性,它们的处罚力度也不够且还存在难于执行的问题。这样企业在比较效益(即预期受罚成本或预期事故成本小于预防成本)的驱使下,可能对民事和行政制裁措施视而不见,依旧我行我素,为谋取巨大利润而置人民安危、公私财产安全和生态环境利益于不顾。所以民事和行政法律对环境污染行为是不足以有效遏制的,而环境刑法却可以依据刑罚的严厉性来协调和规范人们在环境资源利用中的利益冲突。日本著名的刑法学家藤木英雄也曾指出:“公害并非只是违章问题,也不是无可奈何的灾难,而是一种人祸。即使说它不是那么直接,也不是那么明显,如果按照健全的社会共同观念来考虑,就应该把公害看作同杀人和伤害一样重大的犯罪行为。”所以笔者认为我们有必要在环境刑法中引进严格责任来有效制止环境犯罪,以弥补民事制裁和行政制裁在保护环境利益方面的不足。

(4)严格责任在提高诉讼效率方面的意义已得到普遍认同,但它的公平性却始终受到质疑。笔者觉得这样的误解很大部分还是在于混淆了严格责任和绝对责任的含义。现代的严①陈君:《论我国环境刑法中严格责任的适用》,载《北京工业大学学报》20xx年第1期,第65~67页。

8

格责任是以举证责任的重新分配和举证责任的倒置为特征的。正如我国台湾学者所主张的“公害犯罪其行为的故意或过失甚难确定,盖其行为和结果间尚存一段时间,故待结果发生时若非其行为一直持续,则其行为已无客观之存在,则如何认定其先前行为具有故意或过失,则应由法律或以推定方式,或以举证反置的方式,予以法律认定”。故严格责任只惩罚推定有过错的行为和允许被告提出抗辩理由体现了它的公平性。它的最大的价值在于免除了控方的证明责任,但它并非不要求犯意,其实它要求的至少是一种推定犯意。从逻辑上说,被告人证明自己没有主观过错则没有,不能证明则推定有,这是不严密的,但这也恰好就是严格责任的“严格”之所在。且我认为由于人们对周围客观世界的认知能力存在局限性,所以在某些情况下迫于现实状况的需要而采取这种推定的方法也是合理且公平的。

(5)环境犯罪不同于杀人、抢劫、盗窃等普通犯罪一样主观罪过那么明显和直接。环境犯罪主观方面一般排除直接故意,更多的表现为间接故意、过失甚或是推定过错。对主观罪过明显的犯罪刑罚惩罚的痛苦性可以迫使其抑制或改变主观犯意,而对主观罪过不明显的犯罪刑罚惩罚的痛苦性也可以使其更加自警争取不触雷池一步,所以不能说严格责任对没有犯意的犯罪一点预防作用都没有。简而概之就是一句话:有则改之无则加勉。但我想这种误解的最根本原因还在于没搞明白严格责任它并不是惩罚无罪过的行为,它是以过错推定为前提的,它惩罚的至少是有推定过错的行为。在绝对责任的场合,当事人知道自己不论怎样履行自己的注意义务,一旦出现结果,他没有任何申辩理由和免责机会,则很可能放弃采取某种保护措施。而在严格责任的场合,允许被告提出合理的辩护理由而免责,所以被告会更加谨慎地履行自己的注意义务,从而预防和避免危害结果的发生。

另外,我还想强调的一点是犯罪预防的有效程度取决于惩罚的确定性和严厉性。而两相比较,前者效果更好。贝卡利亚曾说过:于犯罪的最强有力的约束力量不是刑罚的严酷性,而是刑罚的必定性。雷也曾指出:决定刑罚效果的最主要原因不在于其严厉程度,而在于惩罚的确定性。我们知道环境污染自有其专业性、技术性、长期性、隐蔽性的特点,控诉方要证明被告的主观罪过有很大的难度,若按传统过错责任的要求,当控诉方没有确切证②①据可以证明被告的行为符合我国刑法规定的四个构成要件时,就不得不按照“疑罪从无”的原则来释放被告。这样势必放纵污染环境的行为,使重大环境污染者逃脱刑事追究,得不到刑事制裁,并最终导致污染环境的行为更加肆无忌惮,环①举证责任倒臵是基于推定而实行的一种证明责任分配方式,所谓推定,是一种法律拟制,即在缺乏证据直接证实某一情况时,根据某些合理的因素和情况,判定某一事实存在的一种机制。既然是拟制,那么只要有可以反驳的事实和证据就可以推翻拟制事实。

②参见刘仁文著:《严格责任论》,中国政法大学出版社20xx年版,第120页。

9

境状况更为严峻和恶劣,同时不利于及时救济和保护广大受害者的合法利益。而严格责任的适用恰好满足了环境犯罪惩罚确定性的要求也弥补了过错责任在此方面的不足。这样提高了环境犯罪惩罚的概率即增加了惩罚的确定性,显然是有助于抑制潜在犯罪人犯罪的,这也正是严格责任预防作用和价值的体现。

五、对严格责任的限制

规定严格责任我们就不得不规定对严格责任的限制,这是因为严格责任自有其“严格”性,即由于过错的推定也可能将无过错的行为也纳入犯罪中来。为了尽量避免这种严格性,各国都对严格责任作了不同限制。笔者将其归纳如下,以为司法实践提供参考:

(一)辩护理由对严格责任的限制

1、法定辩护理由

第一种是一般的辩护理由,包括未达法定刑事责任年龄、精神病、不自愿(被迫的行为)、无意识的行为、正当防卫、紧急避险等。第二种是在严格责任犯罪中,专门规定可以用来辩护的理由,如英国的“无过失辩护理由”和“第三者辩护理由”。 前者指如果被告能够证明其触犯刑法的行为是由于认识错误、意外事件或其他不能控制的原因,并且他曾作出了适当努力来避免该项结果的发生,那么他可以以此作为免责事由。后者指要求被告人不仅要证明自己方面没有过错,而且还要证明该犯罪事实是由于第三者的行为或过错引起的。

2、善意辩护理由

即指控方在以严格责任起诉某一犯罪时,被告诚实而合理地认为存在某种事实,如果确实存在这样的事实证明被告没有主观过错,就使被告的行为免罪,当然证实这一事实存在的举证责任仍由被告承担。实际上,善意辩护只是前面提及的无过失辩护理由更加广泛的运用

[24]。

(二)降低证明标准对严格责任的限制

在过错责任下,按照我国刑事诉讼法的规定,控诉方对被告人罪行的证明标准是“证据确实充分”,即达到排除一切合理怀疑的标准。当他不能充分举证证明犯罪事实,对被告人是否构成犯罪有怀疑时,根据疑罪从无、疑罪有利于被告的原则,应认定被告无罪,它体现的是对被告利益的保护。而在严格责任下,被告对自己没有主观过错的证明标准有所降低,他只要能排除法官的合理怀疑,提出“清楚而使人确信的证据”就可以了。我国也有学者认为被告人的证明要求能达到使法官确信他所称得无过错“很有可能”的程度,而控方又不能进一步提出不容置疑的反驳,就应当宣判他无罪

(三)刑罚适用对严格责任的限制

10 [25]。

由于严格责任只问因果不问过错的严格性,在英美国家,它只适用于轻罪和违警罪,且处罚较轻多为罚金刑或短期监禁。笔者认为,在我国对一般环境污染行为的行政处罚也多为罚款或拘留,且不论行政处罚是否适用严格责任,就其形式和实质而言都符合英美国家关于轻罪和处罚轻的考虑。但针对我国的实际情况,其效果大家都有目共睹,违法企业轻则稍做收敛但依旧或公开或偷偷的排放污水,重则会为了弥补缴纳罚款的损失而变本加厉从而给环境造成更大的污染和破坏,更别说有些行政部门为了创收而有意放任污染和破坏环境的行为了。所以我们有必要在和人类生活联系最密切的重大环境污染事故罪中引进严格责任,当行为人的主观过错难以证明而其他主客观要件符合本罪的构成要件即行为人的行为已违反行政法规,并已造成特别严重的污染环境的后果时就能按照本罪定罪处罚,而不必陷于英美国家都是轻罪和轻处罚的漩涡中。因为在我国,只有社会危害性大的行为才规定为犯罪。既然符合构成要件就是罪有所当,而不会有重刑化的嫌疑,因为这不过是顺应了环境犯罪愈演愈烈的趋势,是刑罚与社会危害性相适应的需要。当然在司法实践中,我们应该倾向于多处罚金刑,而对罚金刑以外的刑罚如自由性考虑有所限制。

(四)罪刑法定对严格责任的限制

在英国,除了很少普通法上的犯罪适用严格责任外,绝大部分的严格责任都来源于制定法,由法院对法律的解释而产生。罪行法定原则已成为我国刑法的一项基本原则,所以我们必须明文规定哪些罪可以适用严格责任,这样可以有效避免司法解释或法官的自由裁量而造成严格责任的滥用。

结 语

环境和人类生活息息相关,经济发展不可避免的给环境带来污染和破坏的问题,经济发展保障人类的生活水平有所提高,但环境污染和破坏又给人类生活带来了灾难和隐患。特别自20世纪以来,气候变暖、臭氧层破坏、酸雨蔓延、大气、水体、固体废物污染、森林被破坏、自然资源被浪费等等问题已是家喻户晓,它们已经严重威胁到了人们的生存环境。为了人类的长远利益,法律在必要的时候伸出了它的调节之手,对经济发展和环境破坏这一矛盾进行了调节,刑法就是其中不可或缺的一部分。我们相信,随着大家对环境问题的关心和重视程度的提高,随着环境立法的不断完善,随着对环境犯罪惩治的确定性的提高,我们一定可以迎来人类和环境和谐相处的美好明天。

11

参 考 文 献:

[1]周道鸾著:《刑法的修改和适用》,人民法院出版社19xx年版。

[2]付立忠著:《环境刑法学》,中国方正出版社20xx年版。

[3]杨春洗等编著:《危害环境罪的理论与实务》,高等教育出版社19xx年版。

[4]蒋兰香著:《环境刑法》,中国林业出版社20xx年版。

[5]陈兴良著:《刑法哲学》,中国政法大学出版社19xx年版。

[6]陈仁、朴光诛编著:《环境执法基础》,法律出版社19xx年版。

[7]陈兴良著:《刑法适用总论(上卷)》,法律出版社19xx年版。

[8]博登海默著、邓正来译:《法理学――法律哲学与法律方法》,中国政法大学出版社19xx年版。

[9]杜澎:《破坏环境资源犯罪研究》,中国方正出版社20xx年版。

[10]覃志军、徐立:《重大环境污染事故罪的构成特征》,载《湘潭师范学院学报》20xx年第2期。

[11]李光禄、牛忠志:《论刑事严格责任原则的合理性》,载《山东公安专科学校学报》20xx年第1期。

[12]骆梅芬:《英美法系刑事法律中严格责任与绝对责任之比辨析》,载《中山大学学报》19xx年第5期。

[13]李景城、李居全:《重大环境污染事故罪能否采纳严格责任》,载《大庆师范学院学报》20xx年第4期。

[14]邓文莉:《我国环境刑法中不宜适用严格责任原则》,载《法商研究》20xx年第2期。

[15]曹子丹、颜九红:《关于环境犯罪若干问题的探讨》,载《法制与社会发展》19xx年第4期。

[16] 隋秋敏、郭云峰:《刑法中严格责任之定义》,载《昭通师范高等专科学校学报》20xx年第1期。

[17]孟庆华:《重大环境污染事故罪的主观要件问题探讨》,载《湖南公安高等专科学校学报》20xx年第3期。

[18]黄广进:《英美刑法中的严格责任在辨正》,载《江南大学学报》20xx年第5期。

[19]陈君:《论我国环境刑法中严格责任的适用》,载《北京工业大学学报》20xx年第1期。

[21] 黄隆丰:《论公害犯罪》,载《刑事法杂志(台湾)》19xx年第2期。

[22]郭亚:《刑法中的严格责任若干问题研究./html/2004-1/2005121.htm,2005-12-12

[23] Campbell & Peter Nygh. Transnational Tort Litigation: Jurisdictional Principles. Clarendon Press. 1996, p.75.

附 录

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附件一:英文文献

INTRODUCTION

Offences of strict liability are those crimes which do not require mens rea with regard to at least one or more elements of the actus reus. The defendant need not have intended or known about that circumstance or consequence. Liability is said to be strict with regard to that element. For a good example see:

R v Prince[1875]:The defendant ran off with an under-age girl. He was charged with an offence of taking a girl under the age of 16 out of the possession of her parents contrary to s55 of the Offences Against the Person Act 1861. The defendant knew that the girl was in the custody her father but he believed on reasonable grounds that the girl was aged 18. It was held that knowledge that the girl was under the age of 16 was not required in order to establish the offence. It was sufficient to show that the defendant intended to take the girl out of the possession of her father.

It is only in extreme and rare cases where no mens rea is required for liability, thereby making the particular offence "absolute".

GENERAL PRINCIPLES

The vast majority of strict liability crimes are statutory offences. However, statutes do not state explicitly that a particular offence is one of strict liability. Where a statute uses terms such as "knowingly" or "recklessly" then the offence being created is one that requires mens rea. Alternatively, it may make it clear that an offence of strict liability is being created. In many cases it will be a matter for the courts to interpret the statute and decide whether mens rea is required or not. What factors are taken into account by the courts when assessing whether or not an offence falls into the category of strict liability offences?

THE MODERN CRITERIA

In Gammon (Hong Kong) Ltd v Attorney-General for Hong Kong [1984], the Privy Council considered the scope and role of strict liability offences in the modern 13

criminal law and their effect upon the "presumption of mens rea". Lord Scarman laid down the criteria upon which a court should decide whether or not it is appropriate to impose strict liability: "In their Lordships' opinion, the law ? may be stated in the following propositions ? : (1) there is a presumption of law that mens rea is required before a person can be held guilty of a criminal offence; (2) the presumption is particularly strong where the offence is "truly criminal" in character; (3) the presumption applies to statutory offences, and can be displaced only if this is clearly or by necessary implication the effect of the statute; (4) the only situation in which the presumption can be displaced is where the statute is concerned with an issue of social concern, and public safety is such an issue;

(5) even where a statute is concerned with such an issue, the presumption of mens rea stands unless it can be shown that the creation of strict liability will be effective to promote the objects of the statute by encouraging greater vigilance to prevent the commission of the prohibited act."

(1) PRESUMPTION OF MENS REA

Courts usually begin with the presumption in favor of mens rea, seeing the well-known statement by Wright J in Sherras v De Rutzen:There is a presumption that mens rea, or evil intention, or knowledge of the wrongfulness of the act, is an essential ingredient in every offence; but that presumption is liable to be displaced either by the words of the statute creating the offence or by the subject-matter with which it deals, and both must be considered

(2) GRAVITY OF PUNISHMENT

As a general rule, the more serious the criminal offence created by statute, the less likely the courts is to view it as an offence of strict liability. See: Sweet v Parsley [1970]: The defendant was a landlady of a house let to tenants. She retained one room in the house for herself and visited occasionally to collect the rent and letters. While she was absent the police searched the house and found cannabis. The defendant was convicted under s5 of the Dangerous Drugs Act 1965, of "being concerned in the management of premises used for the smoking of cannabis". She appealed alleging that she had no knowledge of the circumstances and indeed could 14

not expect reasonably to have had such knowledge.The House of Lords,quashing her conviction, held that it had to be proved that the defendant had intended the house to be used for drug-taking, since the statute in question created a serious, or "truly criminal" offence, conviction for which would have grave consequences for the defendant. Lord Reid stated that "a stigma still attaches to any person convicted of a truly criminal offence, and the more serious or more disgraceful the offence the greater the stigma". And equally important, "the press in this country are vigilant to expose injustice, and every manifestly unjust conviction made known to the public tends to injure the body politic [people of a nation] by undermining public confidence in the justice of the law and of its administration."

Lord Reid went on to point out that in any event it was impractical to impose absolute liability for an offence of this nature, as those who were responsible for letting properties could not possibly be expected to know everything that their tenants were doing.

(3) WORDING OF THE STATUTE

In determining whether the presumption in favor of mens rea is to be displaced, the courts are required to have reference to the whole statute in which the offence appears. See:

Cundy v Le Cocq (1884) :The defendant was convicted of unlawfully selling alcohol to an intoxicated person, contrary to s13 of the Licensing Act 1872. On appeal, the defendant contended that he had been unaware of the customer's drunkenness and thus should be acquitted. The Divisional Court interpreted s13 as creating an offence of strict liability since it was itself silent as to mens rea, whereas other offences under the same Act expressly required proof of knowledge on the part of the defendant. It was held that it was not necessary to consider whether the defendant knew, or had means of knowing, or could with ordinary care have detected that the person served was drunk. If he served a drink to a person who was in fact drunk, he was guilty. Stephen J stated:

Here, as I have already pointed out, the object of this part of the Act is to prevent the sale of intoxicating liquor to drunken persons, and it is perfectly natural to 15

carry that out by throwing on the publican the responsibility of determining whether the person supplied comes within that category.

(4) ISSUES OF SOCIAL CONCERN

See :R v Blake (1996) :Investigation officers heard an unlicensed radio station broadcast and traced it to a flat where the defendant was discovered alone standing in front of the record decks, still playing music and wearing a set of headphones. Though the defendant admitted that he knew he was using the equipment, he claimed that he believed he was making demonstration tapes and did not know he was transmitting. The defendant was convicted of using wireless telegraphy equipment without a license, contrary to s1 (1) Wireless Telegraphy Act 1949 and appealed on the basis that the offence required mens rea.

The Court of Appeal held that the offence was an absolute (actually a strict) liability offence. The Court applied Lord Scarman's principles in Gammon and found that, though the presumption in favor of mens rea was strong because the offence carried a sentence of imprisonment and was, therefore, "truly criminal", yet the offence dealt with issues of serious social concern in the interests of public safety (namely, frequent unlicensed broadcasts on frequencies used by emergency services) and the imposition of strict liability encouraged greater vigilance in setting up careful checks to avoid committing the offence.

(5) IS THERE ANY PURPOSE IN IMPOSING STRICT LIABILITY?

The courts will be reluctant to construe a statute as imposing strict liability upon a defendant, where there is evidence to suggest that despite his having taken all reasonable steps, he cannot avoid the commission of an offence. See:

Sherras v De Rutzen [1895]: The defendant was convicted of selling alcohol to a police officer whilst on duty, contrary to s16(2) of the Licensing Act 1872. He had reasonably believed the constable to be off duty as he had removed his arm-band, which was the acknowledged method of signifying off duty. The Divisional Court held that the conviction should be quashed, despite the absence from s16 (2) of any words requiring proof of mens rea as an element of the offence. Wright J expressed the view that the presumption in favor of mens rea would only be displaced by the wording 16

of the statute itself, or its subject matter. In this case the latter factor was significant, in that no amount of reasonable care by the defendant would have prevented the offence from being committed. Wright J stated: "It is plain that if guilty knowledge is not necessary, no care on the part of the publican could save him from a conviction under section 16, subsection (2), since it would be as easy for the constable to deny that he was on duty when asked, or to produce a forged permission from his superior officer, as to remove his armlet before entering the public house. I am, therefore, of opinion that this conviction ought to be quashed." MODERN EXAMPLES

The following case is a modern example of the imposition of strict liability: Alphacell v Woodward [1972] The defendants were charged with causing polluted matter to enter a river contrary to s2 of the Rivers (Prevention of Pollution) Act 1951. The river had in fact been polluted because a pipe connected to the defendant's factory had been blocked, and the defendants had not been negligent. The House of Lords nevertheless held that the defendants were liable. Lord Salmon stated: If this appeal succeeded and it were held to be the law that no conviction be obtained under the 1951 Act unless the prosecution could discharge the often impossible onus of proving that the pollution was caused intentionally or negligently, a great deal of pollution would go unpunished and undeterred to the relief of many riparian factory owners. As a result, many rivers which are now filthy would become filthier still and many rivers which are now clean would lose their cleanliness. The legislature no doubt recognized that as a matter of public policy this would be most unfortunate. Hence s2(1)(a) which encourages riparian factory owners not only to take reasonable steps to prevent pollution but to do everything possible to ensure that they do not cause it.

ARGUMENTS FOR STRICT LIABILITY

1. The primary function of the courts is the prevention of forbidden acts. What acts should be regarded as forbidden? Surely only such acts as we can assert ought not to have been done. Some of the judges who upheld the conviction of Prince did so on the ground that men should be deterred from taking girls out of the possession 17

of their parents, whatever the girl's age. This reasoning can hardly be applied to many modern offences of strict liability. We do not wish to deter people from driving cars, being concerned in the management of premises, financing hire purchase transactions or canning peas. These acts, if done with all proper care, are not such acts as the law should seek to prevent.

2. Another argument that is frequently advanced in favor of strict liability is that, without it, many guilty people would escape - that there is neither time nor personnel available to litigate the culpability of each particular infraction. T his argument assumes that it is possible to deal with these cases without deciding whether D had mens rea or not, whether he was negligent or not. Certainly D may be convicted without deciding these questions, but how can he be sentenced? Suppose that a butcher sells some meat which is unfit for human consumption. Clearly the court will deal differently with (i) the butcher who knew that the meat was tainted; (ii) the butcher who did not know, but ought to have known; and (iii) the butcher who did not know and had no means of finding out. Sentence can hardly be imposed without deciding into which category the convicted person falls.

3. The argument which is probably most frequently advanced by the courts for imposing strict liability is that it is necessary to do so in the interests of the public. Now it may be conceded that in many of the instances where strict liability has been imposed, the public does need protection against negligence and, assuming that the threat of punishment can make the potential harm doer more careful, there may be a valid ground for imposing liability for negligence as well as where there is mens rea. This is a plausible argument in favor of strict liability if there were no middle way between mens rea and strict liability - that is liability for negligence - and the judges have generally proceeded on the basis that there is no such middle way. Liability for negligence has rarely been spelled out of a statute except where, as in driving without due care, it is explicitly required. Lord Devlin has said: "It is not easy to find a way of construing a statute apparently expressed in terms of absolute liability so as to produce the requirement of negligence." ARGUMENTS AGAINST STRICT LIABILITY

18

1. The case against strict liability, then, is, first, that it is unnecessary. It results in the conviction of persons who have behaved impeccably and who should not be required to alter their conduct in any way.

2. Secondly, that it is unjust. Even if an absolute discharge can be given D may feel rightly aggrieved at having been formally convicted of an offence for which he bore no responsibility. Moreover, a conviction may have far-reaching consequences outside the courts, so that it is no answer to say that only a nominal penalty is imposed.

3. The imposition of liability for negligence would in fact meet the arguments of most of those who favor strict liability. Such statutes are not meant to punish the vicious will but to put pressure upon the thoughtless and inefficient to do their whole duty in the interest of public health or safety or morals." The "thoughtless and inefficient" are, of course, the negligent. The objection to offences of strict liability is not that these persons are penalized, but that others who are completely innocent are also liable to conviction. Though Lord Devlin was skeptical about the possibility of introducing the criterion of negligence (above), in Reynolds v Austin (1951) he stated that strict liability should only apply when there is something that the defendant can do to promote the observance of the law - which comes close to requiring negligence. If there were something which D could do to prevent the commission of the crime and which he failed to do, he might generally be said to have failed to comply with a duty - perhaps a high duty - of care; and so have been negligent.

4. In Alphacell v Woodward (1972) Lord Salmon thought the relevant statutory section, "encourages riparian factory owners not only to take reasonable steps to prevent pollution but to do everything possible to ensure that they do not cause it." This suggests that, however vast the expenditure involved, and however unreasonable it may be in relation to the risk, D is under a duty to take all possible steps. Yet it may be doubted whether factory owners will in fact do more than is reasonable; and it is questionable whether they ought to be required to do so, at the risk - even though it be unlikely - of imprisonment. The contrary argument is 19

that the existence of strict liability does induce organizations to aim at higher and higher standards.

POSSIBLE DEVELOPMENTS

There are several possible compromises between mens rea and strict liability in regulatory offences. A "halfway house" has developed in Australia. The effect of Australian cases is: D might be convicted without proof of any mens rea by the Crown; but acquitted if he proved on a balance of probabilities that he lacked mens rea and was not negligent; ie, that he had an honest and reasonable belief in a state of facts which, would have made his act innocent. The onus of proving reasonable mistake is on D.

STATUTORY DEFENCES

It is common for the drastic effect of a statute imposing strict liability to be mitigated by the provision of a statutory defense. It is instructive to consider one example. Various offences relating to the treatment and sale of food are enacted by the first twenty sections of the Food Safety Act 1990. Many, if not all, of these are strict liability offences. Section 21(1), however, provides that it shall be a defense for the person charged with any of the offences to prove that he took all reasonable precautions and exercised all due diligence to avoid the commission of the offence by himself or by a person under his control. Statutory defenses usually impose on the defendant a burden of proving that he had no mens rea and that he took all reasonable precautions and exercised all due diligence to avoid the commission of an offence. The effect of such provisions is that the prosecution need do no more than prove that the accused did the prohibited act and it is then for him to establish, if he can, that he did it innocently. Such provisions are a distinct advance on unmitigated strict liability.

致 谢

在本论文的写作即将完成之际,笔者的心情无法平静,本文的完成既是笔者孜孜不倦努力的结果,更是导师王飞跃副教授亲切关怀和悉心指导的结果。在整 20

个论文的选题、研究和撰写过程中,导师都给了我精心的指导、热忱的鼓励和支持,他多次询问论文的写作进程,多次为我批阅文章并提出修改意见,他的精心点拨为我开拓了研究视野,修正了写作思路,对论文的完善和质量的提高起到了关键性的作用。另外,导师严谨求实的治学态度、一丝不苟的工作作风和高尚的人格魅力,都给了学生很大感触,使学生终生受益。在此,学生谨向导师致以最真挚的感激和最崇高的敬佩之情。

另外,我还需要特别感谢杨开湘教授、罗树志副教授和张纪寒副教授等对我多年的教育和培养之恩。俗话说:“教师是太阳底下最光辉的事业”。在您们身上,我看到了这句话的真谛,您们谆谆的教导,伟大的人格和无私奉献的精神,让我终生难忘,永远鞭策我前进。在此,我要向诸位老师深深地鞠上一躬。

再者,还要感谢四年来在学习和生活中所有给予我关心、支持和帮助的老师和同学们。特别是我寝室的姐妹们,四年来我们一起学习、一起玩耍,共同度过了太多的美好时光。我们始终是一个团结、友爱、积极向上的集体,我们六人中即将有一人出国,四人就读研究生,即将走向工作岗位的阿薇也是我们心目中的全才。“天下没有不散的宴席”。在我们即将分离的时刻,我别无他话,衷心的祝愿大家一路走好、前程似锦、一生平安幸福。

最后,感谢我的爸爸妈妈,感谢您们赐予我生命,感谢您们二十多年来对我的养育之恩,更感谢您们不管多苦多难对我学业始终如一的理解与支持。

向百忙之中抽出时间审稿和参加本论文答辩的老师致以深深的谢意。向您们说一声:敬爱的老师,您辛苦了!

董玉洁

二零零七年六月

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