英语专业毕业论文写作格式说明

一、总的装订顺序（亦即本说明之排列顺序）

1. 外封（格式要求）

2. 内封（中文）（格式要求）

3. 内封（英文）(格式要求)

4. 目录（格式要求）

5. 摘要（中文）（格式要求）

6. 摘要（英语）（格式要求）

7. 正文（格式要求）

8. 参考文献（格式要求）

9致谢（格式要求）

10. 附录（格式要求）

二、特别提示：

1. 本文本之页码、内容等仅为格式参考，具体内容以论文的实际内容为准。但装订顺序不变。

2. 论文有关页面所应填写的文本的内容、字体、字号、排列位臵以及上下空行等以本文本中之格式为准。一般不做专门说明，请参照执行。（若遇不同电脑或软件导致文本字体字号变异，请参照windows 2000xp系统的word 2003格式。外语学院的各主要办公电脑均由提供。）

3. 各级标题下的列举依照以下格式：

(1)

(2)

(3)

各例句的编号是从头到尾统一编号，其编号格式要统一， 如:

Ex. 1.

Ex. 2.

Ex. 3.

-1-

以此类推。

4. 因为各种举例包含有句子，有短语，也有段落，要采用统一的相应的格式。书名用斜体，诗歌、文章名用引号，但自成一书的诗集及史诗按书名处理，用斜体。详见论文范文后面的专门说明。

5. 审核表是论文开题前，由学院对学生选题的筛选内容，所以不随本论文装订，而是单独上交。“离校申请表”不随论文提交，而是必要时交给导师的。

-1-

学生姓名：张山

院 (系)辅导教师：

时 毕业论文

题目，

黑体，

二号。 英汉思维差异对翻译的影响

张山

总计：毕业论文33页

指导教师：郑厚尧

评阅教师：李璐

完成日期：20xx年6月5日

学生姓名，宋体，小四号，加粗。 论文中文献翻译 外文材料的最后 一页页码。

The Effect of Thinking Modes on

Translation Between English and Chinese

A Thesis

Presented to the School of Foreign Languages

Yangtze University

By Zhang Shan

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

Bachelor of Arts

June 2012

Thesis Supervisor: Zheng Houyao

毕业论文目录

“指导老师审查意见”至“正文目录”的页码全部采用罗马大写字母。具体页码编号，自I开始，依次排列。

指导老师审查意见 ????????????????I 评阅老师评语 ????????????????????II 答辩会议记录及成绩评定 ???????????????III 任务书 ???????????????????????IV 文献综述 ?????????????????????V 中文摘要 ?????????????????????Ⅻ 英文摘要???????????????????????X 正文目录???????????????????????X 正文 ????????????????????????1 参考文献 ?????????????????????32 致谢 ????????????????????????34 附录I文献翻译（译文）????????????????35 附录II文献翻译（原文）????????????????

从论文正文引言开始，直

到外文文献翻译，页码用阿拉伯数字从1往后依次

排序。

I

长江大学毕业论文(设计)评阅教师评语

II

III

指导教师/职称 郑厚尧/教授

年6月5日

文献标注方式与论文正文后面的Bibliography 相同。但

外文文献不得少于4项，文献总数不少于20项。外文在前，中文在后，按姓氏字母顺序排列。

(eighth edition) [M]. Longman: Ma

[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，Communication between Cultures（第

2000.8. [M]. 青岛：青岛出版社，2004.10 . 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1999.11. 这表示：20xx年第11期，第18至19面。 如果不写页码，则写为： 2004（11）.

2004.7. 2004.8.

1.3 从心理学及语言学两方面探讨语言与思维的关系

要求以大纲形式呈

现论文应完成的主要内容。不可用两三句话陈述。

IV

（二）英汉思维差异对翻译的影响

2.1 思维方式差异对翻译的影响

2.2 翻译实践中如何避免思维方式差异导致的翻译问题

5.毕业设计(论文)的目标及具体要求

1）在学校图书馆查阅相关的文献,为论文的写作做准备；

2）拟订粗线条的论文大纲，指导教师认可后撰写详细的论文大纲；

3）论文大纲获得指导教师的认可后，开始准备任务书和开题报告；

4）按照规定的时间上交任务书和开题报告；

5）开题报告获得通过后，进入论文的写作阶段。在论文的写作阶段要保持与指导教师的经常性联系，并且定期向指导教师汇报论文的写作情况及进展；

6）按时提交论文的初稿和修改稿，并做好论文答辩的准备；

7）通过对以上任务的完成，对翻译的策略有了进一步认识。

6、完成毕业设计(论文)所需的条件及上机时数要求

1) 查阅一定的与本论文有关的中英文资料；

2) 在校内图书馆，校外图书馆查阅大量相关的资料；

3) 至少200小时的上机时间。

靠底部对齐。此处三项签名，必须由有关人员亲笔签名，不可打印替代。

任务书批准日期 2012 年 1 月 5 日 教研室(系)主任(签字) 任务书下达日期 20xx年 1 月 8 日 指导教师(签字) 完成任务日期 2012 年 6 月 5 日 学生（签名） V

长江大学 毕业论文文献综述

题 目 名

学 院（系）专 业 班 级：英语10801班 学 生 姓 名：张山 指 导 教 师：郑厚尧 辅 导 教 师： 完 成 日 期：20xx年12月31日 VI

文献综述 外国语学院

文献综述

学生：张山，外国语学院英语系

指导教师：郑厚尧，外国语学院英语系

1.

（简要说明写作本文的目的和涉及的范围，必要时简介本课题的历史背景、发展现状和争论焦点。字数一般在300字左右。）

随着经济全球化的不断深入，商务谈判已成为商业人士工作的重要一部分，尤其是国际商务谈判，其玄机无限。商务谈判的实质是谈判者运用语言彼此沟通、协商、谋求一致、达成协议的过程。在商务谈判中如何提问对谈判者来说是至关重要的。当然，谈判策略的配合使用，掌握常见的谈判策略这是前提。掌握了谈判中提问的策略与语言技巧,也就抓住谈判的主动权,因此本文谈谈商务谈判中提问策略。另外，语言在谈判中的中心地位不可忽视。在谈判中准确运用语言非常关键。因此，商务人员在谈判过程中应注重谈判的语言技巧。商务谈判中通过精妙的提问可以了解对方的想法和意图，掌握更多的信息，同时“问”也是表达自己情感的手段，促进双方的沟通。如何“问”是很有讲究的。选择正确的提问策略，不仅可以引起双方的讨论，还可以控制谈判的方向，掌握谈判的主动权。本文就如上这些问题，在总结前人的成果和自己的思考下，浅谈一下自己的认识。

2. 有关商务谈判的研究及其主要论点

（主体是综述的基础和核心部分。主要通过提出问题，分析问题，综合前人文献中提出的理论和事实，比较各种学术观点，阐明所提问题的历史、现状及发展方向等。一般可以按照题目大小，内容多少及逻辑关系，安排不同层次的大小标题。按论点和论据组织材料。从不同角度阐明主体中心内容。主体部分所引用的资料应注意以下问题：能说明问题，并且具有一定的理论和实践意义；资料真实可靠，既新颖又具有代表性；能反映问题的发展阶段以及阶段性成果。主体字数一般在2500字左右。）

VII

文献综述 外国语学院

2.1 常见的商务谈判策略

2.1.1国际商务谈判的基本原则

对外商务谈判是指国际商务活动中不同的利益主体为了达成协议或交易，而就其各项条件进行协商的过程。谈判人员必须掌握相应的技巧和策略才能谈判中追求利益最大化，达到事半功倍的成效。首先就要遵守一定的国际商务谈判的基本原则。（刘园，1999）

（1）平等互利原则。平等互利是当代国际商务谈判中最基本的原则，谈判的目的在于寻求一种双赢。（Harry Mills,1999）

（2）客观合作原则。谈判就是为了解决问题与他方进行磋商，通过谈判，双方都在寻找一种比以前更好的情形。这需要双方共同的合作。

（3）灵活变通原则。任何谈判都是一个不断思考，交换意见和彼此让步的过程。

2.1.2 国际商务谈判策略应用

从不同的角度和不同的侧重点情况下，国际商务谈判策略的分类和描述是不同的。不过值得统一的就是，无论应用那种谈判策略，过程基本是一致的。谈判之前拟订谈判目标，明确谈判最终目的，并制定谈判策略。每一次谈判都有其特点，因此必须制订特殊策略和相应战术。因此，在谈判中采取合作与竞争相结合的策略会促使谈判顺利结束。这就要求我们在谈判前制定多种策略方案，以便随机应变。（刘园，1999）

（1） 把商务谈判看作一种竞争（丁志明，2008）

a. 投石问路, 主动出击

发问在谈判中扮演着十分重要的角色。发问有助于信息的搜集, 引导谈判走势, 诱导对方思考,同时对方的回答也可相对地形成有效的刺激。

b. 绵里藏针, 出奇制胜

c. 激将法。激将法实质就是针对项目主要负责人或者主谈, 让对方主将激动而丧失理智。

（2） 把商务谈判看作一种合作

平等互利是当代国际商务谈判中最基本的原则，谈判的目的在于寻求一种双赢。客观合作，就是为了解决问题与他方进行磋商，通过谈判，双方都在寻找一种比以前更好的情形。 这需要双方共同的合作。（Harry Mills,1999）

VIII

文献综述 外国语学院

（3） 把商务谈判看作一种艺术

a. 以礼待人, 合作共赢。正如谈判专家Cohen Herbert所说, 成功的谈判“并非一方独得而赢, 而是双方各有所得而赢”。礼貌用语的具体策略有以下几点。

* 间接提问。提问越间接,表达越礼貌。

* 设身处地。这种语言表达是通过说话人表示理解和关心对方的问题, 来改善谈判气氛的巧妙用法。

b. 委婉表达。国际商务谈判中有些话语虽然正确, 但对方却觉得难以接受。因此, 在国际商务谈判中, 需要使用委婉语来达到特殊的语用效果。

c. 妙语解颐, 巧妙应答对于谈判过程中对方提出的问题。我们有时不便向对方传输自己的信息, 对一些问题不愿回答又无法回避。所以巧妙的回答甚至还能活跃会场气氛, 有利于谈判的顺利进行。

d. 模糊用语。我们可以闪烁其词, 避重就轻, 以模糊应对的方式解决。

e. 含蓄幽默。幽默的话语有助于创造和谐的谈判气氛, 可以传递感情, 暗示意图, 可以使批评变得委婉友善, 增强辩论的力量, 避开对方的锋芒, 是紧张情境中的缓冲剂, 同时可以为谈判者树立起良好的形象。

f. 条件式回答。当对方向你提出非分要求时, 拒绝并不是唯一的方式———你可以答应对方的要求, 但一定要限定一个对方不可能接受的条件,这种反击会让对方知难而退, 自己不战而胜。（丁志明，2008）

（4） 恭维有道。以下几点需要重视:

第一, 从态度上要真诚。

第二, 从方式上要尊重谈判对方人员的个性, 考虑对方个人的自我意识。 第三, 从效果上要重视被赞美者的反应。如果对方有良好反应, 可再次赞美, 锦上添花; 如果对方显得淡漠或不耐烦, 我方则应适可而止。

谈判是是一种艺术, 而语言艺术的巧妙应用无疑将为一场谈判加上成功的砝码。语言运用更多的时候是综合运作, 相互配合。运用之妙, 存乎一心。语言的艺术必将为谈判锦上添花,为营造双赢发挥作用。（Harry Mills,1999）

2.2 语言在谈判中的中心地位

商务谈判是经济贸易合作的双方为达成某种交易或解决某种争端而进行的协商洽谈活动。作为一种协调行为过程, 谈判是双方观点互换、情感互动、利益互惠的人际交往活动。谈话的方式与言谈技巧, 对于谈判的进程与结果起着举足 IX

文献综述 外国语学院 轻重的作用。商务谈判中的倾听可以让谈判者获取对手在该起谈判中的目的、意图和具体的做法，获取他们不断变化的看法和其他信息.商务谈判中的“说”就是指谈判者正确地使用语言和语言技巧有效地表达本方的观点、意见，达到说服对方的目的，它是商务谈判的核心环节。（何晓琳，2007）

谈判者如果能提高自己的话语修养，他们是能够在特定谈判语境中清晰地表达出本方的观点的。谈判双方应该要保持一种良好的人际关系，这就是谈判话语的语旨了。谈判者需要合理安排谈话的内容，先说什么，中间说什么，后说什么，这都要有计划。（何晓琳，2007）

使谈判气氛顿时活跃起来。即使在唇枪舌剑的论辩和激烈竞争的讨价还价中。幽默的言语也能极为有利地批驳谬误、明辨是非、说服对方。可以说幽默的语用功能在于创造良好的谈判气氛，传递感情，使谈判人员在心理上得到了享受，提高谈判的效率。（刘园，1999）

2.3 基本的提问策略

谈判中的提问是摸清对方的真实需要掌握对方的心理状态表达自己观点意见进而通过谈判解决问题的重要手段。既然如此谈判者就要灵活艺术地运用提问的技巧。

2.3.1 提问的时间与场合

提问的时机也很重要。把握提问的时机还表现为, 文谈中出现某一问题时, 应该待对方充分表达之后再提问。过早过晚提问会打断对方的思路, 而且显得不礼貌也影响对方回答问题的兴趣。掌握问话的时机还可以控制谈话的引导方向。如果你想从被打岔的话题中回到原来的话题上那么你就可以运用发问加果你希望别人能注意到你提的话题也可以运用发问, 并借连续提问把对方引导到你希望的结论上。(金清子，2008)

2.3.2 发问人和发问对象

明确提问内容。提问的人首先应明确自己问的是什么。如果你要对方明确地回答你那么你的问话也要具体明确。对方坦率耿直, 提问就要简洁对方爱挑剔善抬杠提问就要周密对方羞涩, 提问就要含蓄对方急躁提问就要委婉对方严肃提问就要认真对方活泼提问可诙谐。(秦立，2007)

2.3.3 发问的视角

因为根据不同的发问对象性格，问话的方式很重要。提问的角度不同引起对 X

文献综述 外国语学院 方的反应也不同得到的回答也就不同。在谈判过程中对方可能会因为你的问话而感到压力和烦躁不安。这主要是由于提问者问题不明确或者给对方以压迫感威胁感。这就是问话的策略性没有掌握好。同时在提问时要注意不要夹杂着含混的暗示。避免提出问题本身使你陷入不利的境地。(金清子，2008)

2.3.4 发问的措辞

问话的措词也很重要因为发问容易使对方陷入窘境引起对方的焦虑与担心。因此, 在措词上一定要慎重不能有刺伤对方为难对方的表现。(金清子，2008)

2.3.5 发问的次数、频率与声调

谈判是需要一定的氛围烘托的支持的，因此发问的次数、频率与声调等等都直接影响着谈判的结果，使你是谈判中的决策人物、核心人物, 也不要显示自己的特殊地位, 表现出咄咄逼人的气势否则问话就会产生相反的效果了。

谈判是知识、智慧和才华的较也是谋略的实施与演绎。语言则是作为实施与演绎谋略的一种工具而存在于谈判之中。可以说没有谋略作为内涵的语言必然是单薄而又苍白的谈判语言艺术之所以光彩照人, 也就在于它那变幻莫测的谋略内涵。(秦立，2007)

2.4 提问与其他谈判策略的配合使用

当然提问与其他谈判策略的配合使用也决定着谈判目的的圆满实现和谈判的成功。任何一个系统的运行都离不开有机的融合，谈判策略的配合使用也是这样。由于谈判者来自不同的国家和地区,有着不同的社会文化背景和政治经济体制,人们的价值观念、思维方式、行为方式、语言及风俗习惯各不相同。从而使得影响谈判的因素大大增加，导致谈判更为严重复杂，难度更大。稍有不慎，就会面临挫折和失败谈判中，差之毫厘，在实践中就会谬以千里，甚至给国家和企业造成重大的损失! （刘园，1999）所以在实践中必须慎重对待每一场谈判，尤其重视提问与其他谈判策略的配合使用。

3 结论

（概括主体的主要内容，总结主体的情报资料，并对上述研究成果和论点进行简单的评论，指出当前存在的问题及今后发展趋势和方向。如有必要，也可以提出作者的观点、倾向和建议。总结一般以100-200字为宜。）

XI

文献综述 外国语学院

随着我国经济的飞速发展,尤其是加入WTO 之后,我国与世界各国的经贸活动不断增加,所面临的国际商务谈判随之增多。中方当事人,为了与外方达成某项交易,或实现某项经济合作,如商品买卖、技术引进与转让、投资、企业并购等,就涉及彼此利益的标的物的交易条件,用双方都能听懂的语言———大多数情形下是运用英语,进行沟通、磋商、洽谈,最终达成各方均能接受的协议,实现交易的目标或成功的合作。这种国际商务谈判是十分典型的言语交际活动,英语在其中发挥着重要的作用,也就是说,谈判双方往往要借助英语这一国际性工作语言来完外文：外文

论文标题

不用任何

符号；外文

刊名和书

名用斜体。

中文：中文

论文标题、

刊名和书

名均不用

任何符号。

注意：原文

中本来就

带有标点

符号的仍

旧保留。 成谈判任务。英语是国际商务谈判的主要工作语言,提问是谈判中的一个重要环节,是获取信息的重要方式,有着不可忽视的作用。因此,能否有效运用提问的基本原则、提问方式和提问策略,关系到是否能圆满地完成国际商务谈判任务。商务谈判中，重视和灵活运用发问的技巧，到底哪些问题可以问，哪些问题不可以问，为了达到某一个目的应该怎样问，以及提问的时间与场合、发问人、发问对象、发问的视角、发问的措辞、发问的次数与频率、声调等等，有许多基本常识和技巧需要了解和掌握。同时，提问与其他谈判策略的配合使用也决定着谈判目的的圆满实现和谈判的成功。这也是作为国际商务谈判人士必不可少的素质。 参考文献2002. 参考文献中的空格方式和标点的用法，如果用语言规定则会篇幅太大。故请按照此格式模仿。 同一条参考文献的第二行开头空三个英文字母的空间。 [1]Harvard College. Guide to Smart Negotiation[M]. Boston: Harvard Business School Press,

[2]Harry Mills. Artful Persuasion[M]. Oxford: Oxford Press, 2000.

[3]Lin Xiaohong. The Language Skill in Business Negotiation[J]. Journal of Hunan University of

Science and Engineering, 2010(03): 49-51.

[4]Pervez N. Ghauri. International Business Negotiations[M]. University of

[5]. 国际商务谈判策略的探索[J]. 时代经贸，2008 (03): 78-81.

. 商务谈判语言的策略与技巧[J]. 四川三峡学院学报，1999(05): 77-78.

[7]甘长银. 商务谈判语言艺术的研究[J]. 四川三峡学院学报，1999(05): 64-66.

[8]甘长银. 商务谈判中的提问技巧[J]. 齐齐哈尔大学学报(哲学社会科学版)，2004(01):

82-85.

[9]高丹. 浅谈国际商务谈判策略[J]. 现代商业，2009(04): 33-34.

[10]何晓琳. 国际商务谈判中的语言艺术[J]. 边疆经济与文化，2007(10): 63-65. 这表示：20xx年第3期，第49至51面。 如果不写页码，则写为： 2010（03）.

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[11]郭羽佳, 祖宏迪等. 国际商务谈判获胜的筹码——国际商务谈判的多元化技巧[J]. 知识

经济，2010(02): 89-92.

[12]黄菲. 模糊语言在国际商务谈判中的应用[J]. 科技信息，2010(15): 57-59.

[13]姜栽植. 如何取得国际商务谈判的成功[J]. 知识经济，2010(03): 78-80.

[14]金清子. 商务谈判中的语言艺术[J]. 商场现代化，2008(31): 44-4.

[15]李建国. 商务谈判的语言艺术技巧[J]. 经济师，2004(01): 56-57.

[16]刘国. 国际商务谈判“问”的技巧[J]. 公共商务信息导报，2006(9): 93.

[17]刘园. 国际商务谈判[M ]. 石家庄：对外经济贸易大学出版社，2001: 103-14.

[18]秦立. 商务谈判中的语言技巧 [J]. 商场现代化，2007(01): 51-53.

[19]邵宏. 话语和商务谈判[J]. 中国商贸，2009(17): 22-26.

[20]苏丽文. 国际商务谈判中英语的提问语用策略[J]. 黑龙江对外经贸，2009(12):76-78.

[21]谭红霞. 商务谈判的语言技巧[J]. 中国商贸，2010(14): 52.

[22]王莉. 商务谈判中的口才技巧[J]. 商业经济，1999(04): 84-86.

[23]徐小汀. 也谈国际商务谈判及技巧[J]. 石油化工管理干部学院学报，2009(02): 63-65.

[24]杨劼. 国际商务谈判中话语提问的语用研究[J]. 广西教育学院学报，2007(04): 81-82.

[25]杨淑玲，侯秀杰. 国际商务谈判中的语言文化与非语言行为研究[J]. 吉林师范大学学报

(人文社会科学版) ，2010(03): 53-55.

[26]姚洁. 浅谈对外商务谈判的技巧和策略[J]. 黄冈师范学院学报，2010(01): 66-67.

[27]殷明. 国际商务谈判中语言表达策略分析[J]. 哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2009(05): 84-85.

[28]禹静. 商务谈判战术——问[J]. 黑龙江对外经贸，2008(06): 90-93.

[29]俞玉荣. 商务谈判中“提问”和“答复”的技巧和运用[J]. 职业技术，2004(04): 84.

[30]苑庆春. 外贸商务谈判技巧初探[J]. 读与写(教育教学刊)， 2007(11): 61.

[31]章玉梅. 用好谈判语言一字抵万金[J]. 山东对外经贸，1995 (10), 74-75.

[32]张秀华. 商务俄语谈判提问与答复的语言技巧[J]. 俄语学习，2002(01): 35-46.

[33]张燕珍. 浅谈英语条件句在国际商务谈判中的应用[J]. 科技信息，2010(19): 76-78.

[34]张伟锋. 浅析模糊语在国际商务谈判中的语用功能[J]. 黄河科技大学学报，2010(04): 36.

[35]张军，张卫东. 如何把握商务谈判中的“提问”技巧 [J]. 沈阳干部学刊，2005 (06): 41-44.

[36]周锰珍. 基于“会话含意”的商务谈判分析[J]. 广西民族学院学报(哲学社会科学版) ，

2002 (S01): 82-84.

XIII

的重点研究课题。国内贾德江、刘宓庆，西方的R. Kaplan等学者对此课题进行

了深入的研究，并取得了令人瞩目的成果。中英思维方式的差异可以从很多方面

进行分类。中国人的思维总的来说是如重意象的直观性，对事物规律的归纳总结

和重视主体的感受和内在逻辑性联系的意合，体现为主螺旋型上升趋势，具有明

显的模糊性。而英国人的思维方式则重理性与分析性，注重对客体的临摹与再现，

所以其思维呈直线状态，具有精确性的特点，强调严谨的外在形式的融合等。当

然不同的学者也从其他方面进行了分类。这些思维方式在两个民族的语言上也有

充分的体现，从词汇、句法、语义、语法和文体上分别呈现了明显的差异。对这

些差异的忽视往往导致中英翻译中出现各种错误，如过于拘泥于原文的字面，忽

略两种语言的句法特征，忽略不同的视角和文体特色，或者由于句法差异而导致

在目的语的累赘表述等。

为了避免上述问题，通常要有充分的文化背景知识，然后采取转换翻译策略，

包括词类，词义，句法结构等的转换，同时也可以采取临摹翻译法和反向翻译法

等策略。由此可见，思维方式的差异对翻译质量的影响不容忽视，必须采取相应

的策略，以提高翻译质量。(400-450字)

[关键词]

XIV

Abstract

Thought, language and culture are closely interrelated. Language embodies thoughts and thoughts dominate language, but both under the general framework of culture. Different thinking modes of the Chinese and the Westerners have always been a top academic issues. Such academic celebrity as Jia Dejiang, Liu Miqing, R. Scholar and Kaplan have conducted systematic studies on it and have yielded amazing results. Differences in Chinese and English thinking modes can be classified in various aspects. Chinese thinking modes tend to focus on visual effects, to generalize, be subject-oriented, tortuous and fuzzy, and above all be paratactic. The English thinking modes on the other hand are generally rational, analytical, object-targeted and straight forward and tend to by accurate and above all focus on hypotaxis. Of course other scholars may classify them from some other aspects. These special features in thinking modes are fully manifested in the two languages, lexically, syntactically, semantically, grammatically and contextually. Ignorance of these features may cause negative effects on translation such as stubborn rendering resulting from ignorance of different syntactic preferences, misleading rendering due to differences in viewpoints, awkward transferring for ignorance of rhetoric preference, inaccurate translation caused by improper diction or wordy diction regardless of the syntactic structural differences.

In order to avoid the above problems, sufficient cultural background information will be helpful and strategies such as shifting translation, graphic translation, backward translation shall be adopted. It can be thus concluded that translation cannot afford to neglect differences in thinking modes and that the corresponding strategy may greatly help improve the translation quality. （中文摘要的对应译文）

[Keywords] Chinese and English

embodiment; translation strategies

XV

Contents

1 Introduction……………………………………………………………...………..1

2 Literature Review……………………………………………………...………...2

2.1 Aristotelian school: metaphor—a device of rhetoric……………..……….2

2.2 The platonic school—language is metaphorical……………….……………. 5

2.3 The study of metaphor from the 20th century to the present………………...…..6 3 On Similarity……………………………………………………………………7

3.1 Similarity: a fundamental criterion for the classification of metaphor…...……..7

3.2 Similarity and culture………………………………………………………….9

3.3 Similarity and category………………………….……………………………10

3.4 The relationship between similarity and knowledge……………………….13

4 On the Mechanism of Metaphor…………………………….………………...15

4.1 Black’s interaction theory………………………………………....................15

4.1.1 Introduction to the interaction theory…………………………………...15

4.1.2 Some defects of the interaction theory…………………………………16

4.2 Lakoffian conceptual metaphor theory……………………………………...19

4.2.1 The philosophical basis of lakoffian theory…………………………...19

4.2.2 Lakoffian theory on the mechanism of metaphor………………………21

4.2.3 The deficiencies of Lakoffian theory in expounding the creation of

similarity…………………. ……………………………………………...26

4.3 Conceptual integration theory……………………………………………….29

4.3.1 An introduction to the conceptual integration theory……………......…....29

4.3.1.1 Four mental spaces……………….………………...……………..29

4.3.1.2 Three processes of BT………………..……………..……………..33

4.3.1.3 Optimality principles of BT………….…………………...……….34

4.3.2 The advantages of BT in solving the paradox of the to former

theories…………………………………………………………….……...34

4.3.2.1 The generic mental space…………………………….…...……...34

4.3.2.2 The blending space and emergent structure……..…………..…...35

4.3.2.3 The other advantages of BT………………..…………..…………40 5 Conclusion………………………………………………….……………………42 Bibliography………………………………………………..………………………45 Acknowledgements……………………………………………….………………………46 XVI

1 Introduction

Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us on basis of some analysis, generalization, judgment and reasoning. Animals have thoughts as well, but their awkward sounds for communication are far from being language. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, language has no basis for its existence if there is no thought. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Language as an arbitrary, phonetic and morphologic semiotic and audio system of communication, has long defined as human and is thus the most convincing distinctive features of human beings from animals.

The thinking patterns are one of the most important cues in culture. It is closely related to cultures and embodies the characteristics of cultural psychology. Besides, the modes of thinking also are closely related to language. Different modes of thinking are embodied in language.

(i) The relationship among language, culture and thought

Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and contained of culture, as many aspects of culture can be expressed in language. As a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. In all, language and culture are closely related; each influences and shapes the other.

Language is an instrument used in the communication of thought. It is closely related to thought, too. It represents thought and is influenced by thought. In turn, thought is influenced by language. In addition, thought is determined by cultural value. Their relationships with each other seem more complex. In a word, each of them influences and shapes others. They are seen as three parts of a whole.

(ii) Different ways of thinking between Chinese and Western

“The ways of thinking is quite different, actually, people live in certain area have their own way of thinking. It connects to various kinds of factors, such as geography, history, nation and so on. The ways of thinking are the important reason of cultural difference. It includes knowledge, concepts, methods, language and custom and so 1

different ways of thinking. Therefore, the ways of thinking have their own characteristics, like geography characteristics, social characteristics and national characteristics, etc. According to geography characteristics, it can be divided into Han nation, English and American nation, etc. Here we will make a comparison on

引文：前

缩进10

个字母、

后不缩

进，上下

各空1

行。 Chinese and Western ways of thinking. different ways of thinking in fact are the reflection of cultural difference. People who live in different areas for a long time have different cultural characteristics; therefore, their ways of thinking are different.”

（ibid. 484）

Under the influence of different geography environments, life styles, customs and different cultural values; the East and West are different from ways of thinking. Let us examine some phenomena:

In the college, a foreign teacher is teaching in a class, he is talkative and expressive. Everyone listens to him interestingly. Suddenly, he stops and asks them a question. However, the students don’t know how to answer, they don’t tell the answers. The teacher got a little angry but he had no idea on their behavior. This scene often happens in Chinese classroom. In the foreigners’ eyes, they consider that keeping silent is not a good way when we contact with others. Even you don’t understand, you should say something instead of keeping silent, as it often is regarded as rude and impolite.

The reason lies in that the East and the West have a different way of thinking. The Eastern people are conservative, introvert and inactive, they put more emphasis on harmony, and they like common and stable life; while the Western people are more open-minded, extrovert and active, they like changeable life and thus they emphasize on competition. In this way, their different ways of thinking lead to their different understanding on each other’s behavior. If Chinese see somebody is talkative, they could think he or she wants to extent himself or herself to be the focus of everyone.

In China, we seldom see a couple making close contact in public. They are always walking side by side in a certain distance. While in the West, the couple will open to the public; they are free to show that they are a couple. Even they meet the 2 ibid, 表示此处所引文字与上一处所引出处相同，页码另行标注。

acquaintances; they always give them a hug or kiss as greeting. Controversially, Chinese will shake hands with their friends but seldom hug them. They don’t kiss them as they regard it as an intimate action between husband and wife.

The reason why the east and the west people behave so differently is that people live in the East emphasize on ethic principal, morality, they focus on direct feeling and image. The westerners focus on freedom, democracy and emphasize on individual.

In all, Chinese traditional way of thinking has its own characteristics. It emphasizes the morality, harmony of the society; it promotes the collectivism, responsibility and devotion and so on. The western way of thinking also has its own characteristics. It emphasizes on logic and science, individual achievement, it promotes human right, equality and so on.

The great geographic distance between the British and the Chinese peoples, together with the accompanying different living conditions and cultural environments, has much accounted for the diverse conceptual patterns of the two nations. Such conceptual differences have been duly reflected in and shed great influence on the two languages. Translation between the two languages is consequently far beyond linguistic rendering, but more of cultural transferring and exchange of conceptual patterns.

3

Undergraduate Thesis of School of Foreign Studies of Yangtze University

2 Literature Review

According to Jia Dejiang, “thinking patterns, thought characteristics and thinking styles are the philosophical mechanism of language production. Language actually attaches closely to the thought that is the profound mechanism.”(Jia DeJiang：2002，166) Thinking patterns are the deep-rooted mechanism in the formulation and development of language, which in turn promotes the specialties in certain conceptual patterns. Language is the carrier of reflection and abstraction of reality, and mode of thought is the conscious activity when people reflect and recognize the objective reality. The differences between thinking patterns are the main reasons that result in the differences of language forms, so the study of the transition between different languages should begin with the study of modes of thought in close connection with the cultures and the languages.

Another well-recognized Chinese linguistic scholar Liu Miqing has offered apparently different but essentially similar remarks on the relations between language and thought. His standing is that modes of thought has controlled over languages (ibid.35) , and that languages are the concrete manifestation of modes of thought.

English-Chinese modes of thought have their own characteristics in thinking core, thinking pattern, cognition habits and thinking principles. As a tool for communication the basic attribute of English and Chinese are the same. But because of the influence of their own cultures, there are many differences between the two. The English individualism and the Chinese entirety, hypotaxis as against parataxis, as passive vs. active, static vs. dynamic, and impersonal vs. personal, have long been recognized as the most distinctive features of the two conceptual patterns which are justified by the apparently different cultures and living methods. As Eugene Nida once puts it, the most important different characteristic between Chinese and English is the difference of parataxis and hypotaxis. (Zhang Sijie & Zhang Boran: 1995, 261) Liu Miqing holds the opinion that hypotaxis and parataxis are the “unique characteristic” for English and Chinese. (ibid .13) Conceptual pattern, or mode of thought, is a very complicated abstract conception connected closely to philosophy. English people prefer individualism, which lead to their subordinating the recognized objects into small parts. While Chinese people like entirety, they prefer to take the world as a whole. Thinking patterns have been clearly reflected on languages, as a result of which English is hypotactic and Chinese is paratactic.

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Undergraduate Thesis of School of Foreign Studies of Yangtze University

All metaphors, Aristotle believes, fall into at least one of these four categories, although analogy metaphors are the most pleasing. Aristotle also holds that metaphor can make the prosaic style charming, and stresses that it can only be confined to poetry (ibid. 72). This perspective leads to the later theorists making distinction between poetic language and everyday language. Especially in Chapter 21 and 22 of Poetics, Aristotle states that every word “is either current, or strange, or metaphor, or ornamental, or newly coined, or lengthened, or contracted, or altered”(ibid.70). It is obvious that Aristotle classifies metaphors as lying outside normal language use. They are deviant or aberrant forms of discourse. He also holds that metaphor has no cognitive value and is merely an embellishment of language (Kittay，1965：1). Also in this chapter of Poetics, he elaborates how metaphors are unusual and discusses the relationship between metaphor and genius, viewing metaphor as a talent of epic poets and tragedians:

The greatest thing by far is to have a command of metaphor. This alone can not be imported by another; it is the mark of genius—for to make good metaphors implies an eye for resemblances ( Aristotle，1890：72).

R. Kaplan found that in their English writing English learners of different nations show national tendencies in accurate correspondence with their native tongue and national thinking patterns. For instance, the Chinese and the Korean learners are spiral while the native English learners are more straightforward, and those of Latin (French and Spanish) cultural background are tortuous in approaching the theme, the Russians tend to be parallel and segmental and those of Arabian and Hebrew display parallel thinking modes. In this aspect, a Chinese scholar Zhang Daishan in his Chinese Thinking Tendencies (Zhang and el: 1991,36) summarizes the differences between the English and the Chinese in three aspects: unit vs. opposite, integrity and organic vs. concrete and mechanical as well as circulative vs. straightforward, with the former characteristic of the Chinese while the latter typical of the English. They hold that the Chinese are characterized in their thinking patterns by their introspection, pursue of similarity, circulation, stabilization and visual representation. Another Chinese scholar Zhang Guangming in his Conceptual Thinking in Translation between English and Chinese (Zhang Guangming, 2001,126) concludes that such differences - 5 -

Undergraduate Thesis of School of Foreign Studies of Yangtze University

are best displayed in four aspects, e.g. linguistic concept, comprehension vs. reasoning, comprehensive vs. analytic and unity vs. oppositeness. Lian Shuneng in his essay “On the Thinking Patterns of the Chinese and the Westerners” develops the differences into ten aspects.(Lian Shuneng: 2002,87)

According to Rong Kaiming (1989, 30), thinking modes refers to “an established system of thinking patterns, thinking methods and thinking procedures of the subject in their reflection of the objective world.” Thought is a intrinsic process of human brains in understanding and memorizing the physical as well as non-physical world that we live in, and is a special organic function of the brain. The close interrelation between language and thought further denotes the linguistic differences between different nations as the realization of their thinking modes or conceptual modes. Therefore different languages of different nations can well explain their different thinking modes. As Fu Lei once put it, “…the Easterners are essentially different from the Westerners in their thinking modes. The Easterners tend to be general, inductive, implicit and denotative while the Westerners are more analytic, intricate and detailed and descriptive. The two mentalities can hardly be combined. (Fu Lei: 1995, 521). In this sense, translation between English and Chinese is apparently a linguistic transition but essentially mental transferring between two thinking modes. Too much practice have proved that such transferring of thinking modes are not only necessary and applicable but also an efficient means to pursue quality translation.

So far much has been done and said on the interrelationship between language and modes of thought (or conceptual patterns, as preferred in the present thesis). The most outstanding is Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Much criticized though, the hypothesis is more trustworthy in that it offers a new insight into the interrelationship between language and thought. Its strong version, the so-called “language relativity”, holds that language has determining effects on modes of thought, which is formed relatively to languages and different languages will bring on different thinking patterns (Zhao Xia & Xu Ruifeng: 1992, 35) is still more often than not a topic of debate in the linguistic community which convincingly proves its marking-stone significance in language study.（Wang Wuxing: 2004, 68）

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Undergraduate Thesis of School of Foreign Studies of Yangtze University

3 Differences Between Chinese and English Thinking Modes

As discussed above, differences between the Chinese and the English in their thinking patterns are obvious among scholar. The differences among scholars’ attitudes or classification of the thinking patterns between the two nations are not essentially diversified but rather lie in the degree of detailed typology. Actually, the issue can be approached and considered from various viewpoints. Here are but a few instances for illustration.

3.1 Differences between Chinese and English thinking patterns

3.1.1. Visual thinking vs. rational thinking

The visualized thinking mode, or empirical synthesizes thinking pattern as Zheng Yanhong (Zheng Yanhong, 2003, 51) puts it, establishes the essential difference between the Chinese and the English nation who favors the rational analytic thinking modes. The Chinese is perceptual in their comprehensive thought, but the English and other Western nations lay have developed their own rational and analytic thinking modes. In the empirical comprehensive thinking, the human and the nature (including society) are considered as an organic whole, with the “beauty gathers” (or the union of heaven and human) as its basic characteristic. The doctrine of “yin and yang as one” (or “masculine and feminine elements in one body”) in the Chinese philosophy, not denying the opposition though, lays greater emphasis on the aspect of unity. But the separation of God and human (or the isolation of the heavenly from the earthly) in the English and the Westerners philosophy stresses the opposition aspect though not obviously denying the unity. Such difference has been typical of the two different thinking modes. The Chinese stresses the whole and abstract, and the Westerners stress the components and the specific; the Chinese favors synthesis while the westerners analysis. For instance, when talking about time, the Chinese always start from general units and move on to smaller units, but the English is opposite; and this is also true of their expression of locations. Even in their acquaintance introduction, the Chinese would list the titles (whole) first (from the higher to the lower) before referring to the specific names (individual), but the English would announce the specific name first (individual), then list a succession of duties from the lower to the - 7 -

Undergraduate Thesis of School of Foreign Studies of Yangtze University

higher.

The westerners, esp. the English, have been accustomed to fuzzy thinking since the ancient ages under the philosophical doctrines of the ancient Greek and Roman thinkers. In such philosophical concept, logic and formal testimony is the chief concern and concepts, judgment and reasoning dominate the thinking procedures and thus great emphasis has been laid on the obscure reflection on the world around us. That’s why various concepts, methods and principles abound in western philosophy and essays.

The Chinese, on the other hand, seem more favorite of concrete images and tend to reflect on the world from the view point of specific objects. They would rather describe the objects to generalized principles and inspirations. That to great extent accounts for the image thinking modes of the Chinese. E.g.

1a. But this very formulation is indicative of the understanding attitude. 1b. 但这一说法本身就清楚地表明了其基本态度。

2a. His weariness and increasing heat determined him to sit down in the first

convenient shade.

2b. 他疲惫不堪，天气也越来越炎热，于是他下定决心一碰到舒适的阴凉处就

坐下休息。

3a. Shortness of time has required the omission of some countries.

3b. 由于时间不够，他取消了对某些国家的访问。

In the above specimen of 1a, 2a and 3a, the subjects are not any person or object but rather some state or concepts although the sentences are more person-oriented. Yet in the Chinese version, the persons concerned are used as the subjects to directly reveal the speaker’s concern.

Even when the Chinese means to express some attitude or impression, they may not state it directly but rather use metaphor or indications by means of some specific images. e.g.

4a.He had sacrificed with less visibility in the policy decision.

4b.在决策过程中，他已经不那么抛头露面了。

5a.我的心里七上八下的。

*5b.There are seven ups and eight downs in my heart?

5c.My mind is greatly upset.

The concept of “visibility” in 4a is replaced by the image expression of “抛头露 - 8 -

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面” in 4b in which “头”(head) and “面”(face) are used to show his presence or visibility in the occasions. In 5a and 5b, the specific numbers of “七”(seven) and “八”(eight) in the Chinese are replace by “upset” in English because the Chinese phrase “七上八下” just use the two numbers to vividly describe the get chaos in the speaker’s mind. Yet 5b, the direct rendering sound rather confusing to English readers as few of them can understand why there are such things as “seven ups and eight downs” in a person’s mind.

Such instances are just abundant in our daily speech, not to mention the numerous classic essays and literary masterpieces and EST papers.

3.1.2 Generalizing thinking vs. analytical thinking

The differences of philosophy and cultural background between English and Chinese have resulted in the rethinking of the Han nationality as an entirety thinking country and the English people individual characteristics of thinking.

The Chinese people are concerned more with their own bodies in expressing emotions, so intuition thinking is the main feature of their mode of thought, for which people study objects as a whole and emphasize entirety. Chinese philosophy is systematical naturalism.（Mao Guirong: 2005, 420）

In the English thinking pattern, individualism is greatly emphasized. The English people link their own emotion to planetary influence and the natural elements, so they prefer analytical logic thinking. Target objects are subordinated into small parts in order to be scrutinized, which, of course, may lead them to place the components before the whole when they try to know something.（ibid. 420）

From the historical viewpoint, we can easily find that the Han nationality has long established such thinking modes even since the ancient ages. The Book of Changes put forward the framework for the theory of entirety which considers the natural phenomenon and the human affairs as a whole. That’s why the book proposes to predict human fortunes by yin and yang poles consisting of the eight (and later further developed into six-four) gua (divinatory symbols) system. Such a doctrine was later perfected by daoism in its chaotic and pure status, by taiji in its dao and reasoning, and then by metaphysics, Buddhism, and by rationalism of the Song Dynasty. That’s why in the Chinese language, sense has always been the dominator while the expression forms has been much neglected. But the Westerners, esp. the - 9 -

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British nation has always stressed analysis and rationality in their thinking. In their minds, individualism is the prime concern and is always dependent, which has resulted in their dualistic philosophy. Following such perceptions, materials and spirits are separated, just like human and nature, content and form. Such thinking modes can date back to Decartes’ conception elementalism and lasts to Russell’s logical elementalism, which has greatly contributed to the typologies in natural sciences in the late 1500s Europe which tends to segment the nature and all objects to the infinite smaller units. In modern linguistics, the IC analysis has cut our language to morpheme.

6a: 尽管她很年轻，但她懂的东西比你多。

6b: Young as she is, she knows more than you.

6c: Though she is young, she knows more than you know.

7a: 她气的连话都说不出来。

7b: So angry was she that she couldn’t speak.

7c: She was so angry that she couldn’t speak.

8a: 只有这样才能解决问题。

8b: Only in this way can you solve the problem.

8c: The problem can only be solved this way.

The Chinese sentences clearly demonstrate the difficulty in understanding Chinese without necessary generalization. 6c, 7c and 8c are literal translation of the Chinese, as most Chinese learners of English more often than not would do. Such translations reveal that the Chinese learners tend to generalize the English expressions without sufficient attention to the analytical nature of the target language.

Similar instance just abound in both English and Chinese literature at various levels ranging from diction, semantic connotation, denotation, syntactic structures to contextual preferences. It’s absolute unnecessary and impossible to list them one by one here.

3.1.3 Subject-oriented thinking vs. object-targeted thinking

It is also categorized as intent thought and the cognition thought. The Chinese habitually take the person or subject as the object in their intent thought while the Westerners tend to take the nature as the object for their cognitive thought. The intent thought is introverted, the contraction, emphasizes the main body, therefore Chinese - 10 -

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linearity delays extremely limitedly, was frequently counter (front has pointed out); The cognition thought is the extroversion, the radiation, the emphasis object, therefore English extremely little counter extends the expansion. Thus linguist Mr. Wang Li spoke Chinese is the rule by people language, English is the government by law language. Chinese expresses the subject take the main body as the center with to state the topic the relations, but frequently does not indicate initiative or passive, the prominent subject the non-subject, often is the subject with states the topic compound advancement, thus multi-short phrases, simple sentences (without clauses); The subject custom person, uses sends out the movement on own initiative or has thing of the life to fill a position the subject, thus the multi-verbs, favor the verb. English often uses cannot send out the movement or the lifeless thing words and expressions on own initiative makes the subject, passive sentence, long verse, compound sentence; A sentence becomes the straight line development take a verb as the center, thus the multi-nouns, favor the noun, multipurpose function words and so on preposition, conjunction. e.g.

9a: 托马斯·杰弗逊对美国的教育事业做出了巨大的贡献。

9b: American education was a great debt to Thomas Jefferson.

10a: Academically the fact that insects could be sterilized by exposure to X-ray had been known since 1916, when an entomologist by the name of G. A. Runner reported such sterilization of cigarettes beetles.

10b: 19xx年，一位名叫G.A.朗纳的昆虫学家报告说，可以通过X光照射使烟草甲虫不育，从那时起，人们就已经从理论上知道可以这样使昆虫失去生育能力。

11a. Another idea suddenly struck me.

11b: 我突然想到另一个主意。

12a. The second world war brought him rapid battle promotion.

12b: 他在二战中屡建战功，晋升很快。

The above English sentences, with the abstract subjects, sound quite natural to English readers, but would sound quite awkward to the Chinese readers if literally transferred into Chinese. The Chinese translation, on the other hand, begins with the personal subject and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers.

3.1.4 Tortuous thinking vs. straight thinking

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Undergraduate Thesis of School of Foreign Studies of Yangtze University

In the Western philosophy, it has been a lasting convention to pursue alternate contrast in its reasoning, thus establishing a straightforward thinking mode. But the Chinese, on the other hand, have been more accustomed to the harmony and unity of the world, esp. that between the nature and the humans, and are more likely to adopt both sides of a matter, thus establishing a tortuous thinking mode. As reflected in their speech, the English tend to stick to the point at the very beginning of the speech, offering a straight and frank theme of the speech before proceeding on to present the relevant details and accompanying situations. That may well account for the syntactic features of a compact head and a long and heavy ending with the emphasis at the front part of the sentences. And the Chinese sentences, due to the speakers’ thinking modes, will present the relative information in great detail before hitting upon the theme, are abound in expressions with a long head with a short ending. e.g.

13a: I met with my middle schoolmate at the entrance of the theater at 7:30 yesterday evening, when I haven’t seen for years.

13b: 昨天晚上7点半在剧院门口， 我遇到了我多年未见的中学同学。

In consequence of such thinking modes, the Chinese would organize their speech in logic order by telling the causes before describing the consequences, and offering some prepositions before the deductive reasoning, and describing the facts before offering the speaker’s attitude. And even in the spacious or sequential order, they tend to list from the more general to the more specific. As for the sequence of importance or significance, it’s not difficult to see why they would begin with the most important or significant and then move on to the less important or less significant. The English speakers, with the assistance of conjunctions and prepositions, can be more flexible than the Chinese in this aspect.

14a: He didn’t come because he was ill

14b: 他因为下雨而没来。

15a. And there are others who say their suspicions were aroused over time, as the 55-year-old Mr. Williams, who appeared on weekends turned out in fine suits, brought up property by property.

15b: 也有人说他们的怀疑与日俱增，因为55岁的威廉姆斯先生总是西装革履地在周末出现，买下一笔又一笔地产。

15c: 55岁的威廉姆斯先生总是西装革履地在周末出现，买下一笔又一笔地 - 12 -

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产，因此，也有人说他们越来越怀疑了。（Zhang Ping: 1996, 82）

And in still another aspect, the Chinese would deal with the ready information before discussing the unknown information, following a trail from the speaker to the further world around him. This is a vivid reflection of their practical living styles. As Zhao Weijun(1997，86) puts it, 50% of the Chinese sentences or speeches follow the order of known to unknown. E.g..

16a: What on earth do you mean by talking about these at that moment when we were all in high spirits?

16b：当大家兴高采烈时，你却谈论这些问题，到底什么意思？

17a. I think a successful old age is easiest for those who have great impersonal interests involving appropriate activities.

17b: 我认为，如果老年人对于个人以外的事情怀有强烈的兴趣，并参加适当的活动，他们的晚年是最容易过的好的。(Yang Sheying, et el, 2008, 70) In the English version in 16a and 17a, the English speaker focuses on the leading concept (or the speaker’s concern) at the very beginning of the sentences before presenting the ready information. Yet the Chinese version in 16b and 17b, the Chinese speaker begins with the ready information (“大家兴高采烈” in 16b and “老年人对个人以外的事情怀有强烈的兴趣，并参加适当的活动” in 17b) before touching those distant information.

3.1.5. Fuzzy thinking vs. accurate thinking

Fuzzy thinking is more emphatic of the general impression or the general principle of reflection and is not so much concerned with the specific details of the objects or the relative information. That’s more typical of the Chinese than of the Westerners, esp. the English. The Chinese has long been influenced by such a fuzzy philosophy. Even in the remote classic “Lao Zi”, dao (principle) has been assumed as the general origin of the world and heaven. But the book described dao as something fuzzy and shaky without any embodiment and yet with reference to and implicative of everything under the sun. Then in Zhuang Zi’s arguments, dao was further applied to explain the relationship among things in the world, in which unity and harmony among all objects (including human beings) was greatly extended. According to Zhuang Zi, the world around us is incomprehensible in detail but perceivable in - 13 -

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general. This is vividly embodied in the Chinese language. For instance, there is no article in Chinese. When we refer to some special items, the reader or audience have to guess which special item is being referred to in light of the context. Another instance is the omission of numerical before nouns, e.g. “冰箱里有鸡蛋和西红柿”------There are eggs and potatoes in the freezer. But how many are there in it? Nowhere to learn. Still another example is the contextual cohesion in Chinese depends heavily on the internal relationship between paragraphs and sentences, and conjunctions or prepositions are often unavailable. e.g. “他吃完饭去了学校”------He finished meal went to school (He went to school after dinner).

The English, in contrast, lay great emphasis on the accuracy of description and speech. Such thinking modes are also deep rooted in their philosophical convention. The westerners have always shown more interest in science and technology that demand accuracy and precision and objectiveness. And so have been their languages. Whenever they talk about something, they try to be accurate and syntactically well-constructed and there are more functional words in English than in Chinese essays.

In Chinese we have a word “气” (qi)-----物质之气，人生性命之气，能动的实体之气，正气. But how shall we understand these qi in English? Actually they are greatly diversified in meaning, referring to material force, air, vitality, vital energy and integrity.

18a: 此刻自己也跟了进去，一则宝玉不便，二则黛玉嫌疑。罢了，倒是回来的妙。（《红楼梦》第七十二回）

18b: If I go in now after him, he is sure to feel embarrassed and she is sure to start imagine things. It would be better to go back without seeing her. (Chapter 72, A Dream in Red Mansions)

It’s not difficult to see that the Chinese version is quite obscure in many cases. “跟了进去”—follow inside, but follow whom? The author doesn’t tell as it’s not necessary to tell in Chinese and it’s up to the reader to understand from the context. But the English version puts it clearly—“after him, Baoyu”. What does “不便” (inconvenient) mean here? What kind of inconvenience is it? And what kind of “嫌疑” (suspicion) is referred to? The Chinese version is quite ambiguous and even confusing. But the reader can understand it. Yet it should not be literally rendered into - 14 -

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English. Instead the above questions are both answered in the English version. “不便” (inconvenient) means Baoyu’s embarrassment to talk love to his love in face of a third person. And “嫌疑” (suspicion) refers to Daiyu’s suspicion of Baoyu’s sincerity in his love—why should Baoyu get someone around if he really means to express his true love to her? Daiyu may imagine that Baoyu has got the guy around on purpose—find reasons not to express his love for her because he has no love for her at all. So the English version reads “start to imagine things”, as vivid representation of the Chinese version.

3.1.6 Hypotaxis vs. parataxis

The differences between hypostasis and parataxis have helped to form the two languages their own styles.

In the comparisons and theory stated above we have known that English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. So Mao Ronggui holds the opinion that English is a kind of language that is full of virile qualities, for the character of linear logic, organization and ration, which has led it to be “masculinity”. (Larry A. Samovar: 1999, 420 )

On the other hand, Chinese has got its own beauty, which doesn’t pay too much attention to logical description of the objective reality. Further more, it is not clinging with the criterion of the language structure. Chinese is a kind of language that shows the character of “femininity”, and the charming of it lies in its loose structure. (Hu Wenzhong: 2001, 420)

From the comparisons above we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. The forming of these differences, in my opinion must be traced back to the diversity of their thinking patterns, for they are closely connected with the way to recognize the world and to judge what is the most important.

19a.你学习努力，就能通过考试，不努力就通不过考试

*19b. You will work hard and you can pass the exams. You won’t work hard and you will fail in the exams.

19c. If you work hard, you will pass the exam, otherwise you’ll fail.

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20a. 他是个很有经验的商人，他从事外贸好多年了。

*20b. He is an experienced businessman. He has engaged in foreign trade for many years.

20c.He is an experienced businessman because he has engaged in foreign trade for many years.

21a. 他们之间了解的多一些，相处得就好一些了。

21b. Now that they know more about each other, they get on better.

The above specimens are convincing enough in demonstrating how the Chinese emphasize hypotaxis in their speech while the English are more parataxis-considerate.

3.1.7 Some other classifications

As different scholars may approach this issue from different viewpoints, the differences between the Chinese and English thinking modes can be further categorized in some other aspects. Actually there are so many factors to consider in distinguishing the thinking modes of the two nations that it is neither practical nor necessary to discuss them all here. The few briefed below are just a few sands on the seashore.

a. Backward thinking vs. predictive thinking

It has been found that the Chinese tend to consider matters in predicative order while the English prefers backward thinking.(Zhou Fangzhu: 1987, 95) For instance, the Chinese would usually give reasons before presenting the consequences while the English would rather state the result before giving the causes. E.g.

22a: She was amazed that he should arrive so soon.

22b: 他来得真快，让她惊奇不已。（He had arrived so soon and this surprised her very much）

23a: He realized that she was crying because of what he had said.

23b: 他认识到他的一番话让她哭了。 （He realized that because of his words she cried）

And such tendencies can be examined in many other aspects such as time sequence, physical directions, psychological distances, etc.

b. Introspective Thinking vs. Extroversive Thinking

It is generally agreed that the Chinese are introspective in their thinking, which is - 16 -

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best illustrated by some widely accepted Chinese sayings such as “静坐常思自己过，闲谈莫论他人非” (Try to reflect on your own faults when spared, but never gossip on others’ mistake while chatting), “修身，齐家，治国，平天下” (upgrade yourself to support the family, help the state and benefit the people). In most cases, modesty has been one of the essential morals of the Chinese, which serves as another instance of the introspective thinking of the Chinese------they should never boast of being the best but should always strive for the better by finding flaws in their work or behavior. The English, in contrast, strive for success with great self-confidence and praises from others are usually accepted immediately and parents are always trying to find progress in their children. “Making a difference is the order of the day” has been common belief for most English-speaking nations. Even when presenting some principles, the Chinese prefer to imply or indicate while the English would state them straightforward without any hesitation.

c. Dialectical thinking vs. logical thinking

Another specialty of the Chinese thinking mode lies in the dialectical elements. The Chinese seldom consider things isolate but rather dialectical. The easiest instance is the Chinese phrase “舍得”(“afford to lose” in the common sense) which actually implies that you should first of all offer something to others if you mean to get something back. To give and to take are two opposite actions but in Chinese the contradictory actions are combined in one phrase “舍得”------ to take by giving. The English have strict sense of logic and things are black or white, no middle position or combination of the two.

d. Collective and selective thinking

In correspondence to other aspects of their thinking modes, the Chinese prefer collective thinking while the English selective. That is, the Chinese would focus on the general impression or final result or the dominating tendency without caring much about the details of matters. Yet the English would focus on the details before concluding the final results. Such thinking modes have accounted for the different political, economic, cultural and even scientific and technological development trails in the history of the two nations. For instance, the Chinese are art-oriented in such techniques as cooking, garments, painting and music, and above all, personal political progress while the English have proved greater advantage in technological sciences such as machinery, mathematical analysis and similar techniques demanding great - 17 -

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focus on accurate measuring and calculation of details.

In spite of the great differences between the two nations in their thinking modes, similarities are obvious and easily available in too many aspects. But this is not the focus here and does not demand or deserve any detailed argumentation here.

3.2 Linguistic features resulting from differences of thinking patterns

The effect of different thinking modes on linguistic construction is also apparent in the lexical, syntactic, contextual and grammatical features of the two languages.

3.2.1 Lexical Features

Morphemes are the essential units of language. So vocabulary usually reveals the classification of the speakers of a language. That is, they have divide the objects around us according to different criteria. For instance, we have “黑色金属” and “有色金属”. But can they be translated into “black metal” and “colored metal” literally? Of course not. The Chinese “黑色金属” refers to “ferrous metals” and “有色金属” to non-ferrous metals. This means that the Chinese distinguish metals from the external colors while the English classify them on light of the existence of iron in the metal. Another instance may better explain the difference. In English we have “white meat” and “red meat” which are not available in Chinese. That means the English have classified animal meat in a way completely different from that of the Chinese.

Such examples are just too easy to find in the vocabulary of the two languages. “炒”—stir-fry; “预备党员”—probationer party member; “high table”—大宴会中高出其他桌子的餐桌；hillbilly—美国南部山区的人, etc, are just a few. All these are hardly directly translatable and need to be explained with some additional explanation as they are not directly available in the target language (TL).

English word formation takes various forms such as affixation, compounding and conversion, blending, clipping acronyms, backformation and adoption from proper nouns. But Chinese words (characters) never experience such formation process. Their grammatical functions and meanings are decided by their relations with other words (characters) in their context and are thus more flexible and context-dominated. In English, we have “we, our, us, ours” and “I, my, me, mine” for the first personal, but in Chinese we have only one word (character) “我” (wo3, I or me) and by adding - 18 -

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another word “的”（de4, of） we get the phrase “我的” (wo3de, my or mine) to indicate the possessive relationship or adding “们”（men2, plural form for all nouns, esp. personal pronouns）to get “我们” (wo3men2, we or us) for the plural form of “我” and we can get another phrase “我们的” by adding both words “们” and “的” after “我” to get the plural possessive form of the word “我”. This implies that the Chinese morphemes enjoy more liberal combination with other morphemes to establish new and more complicated phrases. But the English morphemes, when forming new words, or even conducting different grammatical functions, will follow strict rules and even take completely new forms.

Such differences in lexical features have also caused great trouble to translators. Actually in too many cases translation is impossible, and the original meaning is only partly conveyed via metaphor or explanation as no other alternative is available for such translation.

3.2.2.2 Syntactic features

Wang Ying the famous professor once said that some linguistics lively compare English structure as “grape structure”, for the trunk of the grape is very short with many fruit attached on it to form very long sentences. Different from that, the Chinese sentences are shorter with phrases in sequential order by themselves just like the bamboo joints. So Chinese is called “bamboo structure”. (Hu Wenzhong: 2003, 12)

The most commonly used word order for English is the strict SVO. English sentences take verbs as their cores, which are their center controlling all the relationships between the sentence components. Except the predicate verb all the verbs take the form of indefinite form to make difference from the predicate verb, and many prepositions and conjunctions are used to connect the phrases contained. For Chinese it usually makes good use of verbs together in one sentence to present the things one by one according to the time when the things happened. (ibid.57)

Structuralism linguistics promotes the theory of constituent incision, which means to separate the sentences to phrase unities.(ibid.31) Moreover they prefer the constituent analysis, which means to connect all of the language components to others when they are analyzed. This kind of method will change the English to the recognized objects from structures. An English sentence on global energy supply reads:

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24a: Renewable sources then will help to address the social inequality across the globe that we see in the currently marked and unacceptable difference between rich and poor nations in terms of access to and use of energy supplies.

The Chinese statement of similar meaning reads:

24b: 在能源供应的选择与使用方面，我们看到富国与贫国之间存在着今人难以接受的显著差距，再生性能源将有助于消除这种全球性的社会不公。

From the English-Chinese comparison above we may see that besides the basic components ----subject, object and predicate there are also many other component attached closely,

Small components: across the globe that we see in the currently marked and unacceptable difference between rich and poor nations in terms of access to and use of energy supplies.

The strict SVO sentence structure is commonly used word order in English, while the sentence structure for Chinese is not so strictly required. Usually several SVO structures can be placed one by one to express some things in one sentence only. In my own opinion the SVO phrase is perfectly used to connect the small components together, and the detailed components are where the English people start their thinking. In this condition I would like to assimilate the predicate verb to the trunk of the grape that combines all the grapes together. While for the Chinese the whole intuition is formed at first and then the phrases are placed one by one without using too many connecting forms just like the bamboo joints which grow one by one.

3.2.3 Semantic Features

The semantic features of English and Chinese thinking modes can be analyzed in two sub-sections: the intra-sentence relationship and the inter-sentence relationship. The former refers to the relationship among different parts within a sentence and studies the way that different parts are composed to establish meaningful sentences. The latter, in a broader sense, tends to expose the relationship between or among different sentences and how they are related to each other to convey the author or speaker’s intentions. Yet the latter, inter-sentence relationship is different from contextual relationship in that contextual relationship studies such relationship in light of whole paragraphs or even whole passages while inter-sentence relationship is more sentence-oriented.

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i. Intra-sentence relationship:

Even within a sentence, the Chinese would rather shift from the general information to the more specific and detailed and would usually give the minor information before focusing on the key points. This well embodies their thinking patterns such as tortuous thinking and subject-oriented etc.

25a: 为了保障涉外经济合同当事人的合法权益，促进我国对外经济关系的发展特制定本法。

25b: This law is formulated with a view to protecting the lawful rights and interests of the parties to Chinese-foreign economic contracts and to promoting the development of China’s foreign economic relations.

The Chinese sentence introduces the objectives in great detail before bringing out the key point of the whole sentence, but the English translation, instead, begins with the focus—the law is formulated—before offering the objective and other minor information. When reading the Chinese sentence, we can also find that the speaker is more concerned with the law-maker’s consideration in making the law while the English emphasized the fact that the law has been formulated and shall be duly implemented.

Similar instances are readily available in English and Chinese writings of various sorts and demand no further demonstration here.

ii. Inter-sentence relationship:

The relationship among sentences are also different between Chinese and English. As the Chinese are hypotaxis-oriented while the English are parataxis- considerate, Chinese sentences are usually more distant from each other in connotation and demand few conjunctive phrases, thus offering the speaker or writer greater freedom in thought and composition. To sum up, the Chinese inter-sentence relationship are more like a brook flowing freely. E.g.

26a: 又是春天，窗子可以常开了，春天从窗外进来，人在屋里坐不住，就从梦里出去，不过唔知喎的春天太贱了，到处都是阳光，不想射破物理阴森的那样明亮，到处都是给太阳晒得懒洋洋的风，不象搅动物理沉闷的那样有生气，就是鸟语，也似乎琐碎的单薄，需要物理的寂静来做衬托。我们因此明白，春天是该镶嵌在窗子里看的，好比画配了框子。（钱钟书《窗》）

The above paragraph implies that the author is just following his own free thoughts, as if in the stream of consciousness and the sentences just flow out of his - 21 -

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mind and drip off his pen happily. The thoughts are so happy and free that the sentences enjoy the same without any zigzag from any conjunctive phrases. The four governing sentences composed of 3-6 clauses are so naturally combined that they establish a whole by themselves without any external assistance.

27a: 祥子想找个地方坐下，把前前后后细想一想，哪怕想玩智能哭一场呢，也好知道哭的是什么，事情变化的太快了，他的脑子已经赶不上，没有地方给他坐，到处是雪。小茶馆们都上了门，十点多了，就是开着，他也不肯进去，他愿意找个清静的地方，他知道自己眼眶中转着的泪随时可以落下来。（老舍《骆驼祥子》

In contrast with the Chinese in thinking sequence, the English prefer rational analysis in their thinking and judgment and inference based on accurate concepts before reaching a logical conclusion. Such thinking mode is best represented in the syntactic order and the rigorous thoughts in their speech which contributes to the final radioactive structure of the sentences. e.g.

28: We don’t understand that pain may be telling us that we are eating too much or the wrong thins, or that we are smoking too much or drinking too much, or there is too much emotional congestion in our lives, or that we are being worn down by having to cope daily with overcrowded streets and highways, the pounding noise of the garbage grinders, or the cosmic distance between the entrance to the airport and the departure gate.

Long as the whole sentence may be, the frame is but a simple SVO structure followed by some parallel clauses or short semantic segments connected by some “ors”. The structure is clearly outlaid and the relationship between clauses readily comprehensible. This is actually true of even short sentences in English.

29a: She’s such a sympathetic lady that a sad movie always stirs her sympathy. 29b: 她是个富有同情心的人，往往一场伤感电影就足以让她产生怜悯之情。 When translating the above paragraph about Xiangzi, we have to add some functional, esp. conjunctive phrases so as to realign the original segmented loose clauses into well-structured full sentences dominated by some core semantic units, and the reading thus reads:

27b: Xiangzi wanted to find a place to sit down and mull things over. Even if he only ended up by crying, at least he would know why. Events had moved too fast for his mind to keep up. But there was nowhere to sit, since everywhere was covered with - 22 -

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snow, All the little teahouses were boarded up as it was after ten, and had one been open he wouldn’t have gone in anyway, he wanted to fine somewhere quiet, because he knew that his tear-filled eyes would brim over any minute.

The above translation indicates that the translator begins with sorting our the logical interrelations among three key clauses inside the original text------ to sit down and mull things over（祥子想找地方坐下）, boarded up as it was after ten (茶馆上门和时间) and because he knew that his tear-filled eyes would brim over any minute（找清静的地方和眼泪落下）and proceeds with relocating their relationship logically by integrating them into five statements of SVO patterns, thus making the translation readily comprehensible to English readers while consistent to the Chinese original text in essence.

It’s necessary to mention that hypotaxis here refers to the integration among sentences and phrases by means of functional and grammatical components. Parataxis is the connection by means of the connotations of the semantic units rather than by means of external functional components. Cohesion is the focus in hypotaxis whereas coherence is the main concern in parataxis.

3.2.4 Contextual features

Also based on the Chinese hypotaxis-tended thinking mode and their dialectical consideration in expressions, the contextual features in Chinese writing or speech are also apparently different from the English. The Chinese do not pay so much attention to the external connection among sentences but the sentences join themselves by the internal correlations logically and semantically. The English, in contrast, pay great attention to the formal connection among sentences and use various conjunctive phrases to indicate the logic relationship in the context. Therefore, reading Chinese paragraphs, the reader will have to understand the author on basis of the whole context so as to get a thorough and comprehensive understanding of the paragraph or the essay. The readers of English passages will not be so burdened.

30a: 十月五日第ot-5号合同项下的20万吨大米，原定于十二月底前交货。你放在合同中保证提前交货，并且以此作为签订合同的条件，但是，这批大米迄今尚未装运，对此我们深表遗憾。

This is a typical business message in which the author presents the background - 23 -

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information for his claim and then offers two evidences for it and finally puts forward the claim. Such sequence is typical of Chinese thinking modes, but if literally rendered, it reads:：

*30b: The 200000 tons of rice under Contract No. OT-t of October 5 is scheduled to be delivered by the end o December. You have guaranteed an early delivery in the Contact and it is on this understanding that we signed the contract. Up to now however, the shipment has not yet been made. We very much regret for that.

Such literal translation in conformity with the Chinese sequence of thoughts, is loose in structure and logic and is lacking in theme, making the whole passage appears confusing. But native English speakers would prefer to express the same as follows:

30c: We very much regret that the 200000 tons of rice under Contract No. OT-5 of October 5, scheduled to be delivered by the end of December, is up to this moment not dispatched, in spite of the fact that you have guaranteed an early delivery in the Contract which as actually signed on this understanding.

In 30c, the speaker/author begins with the theme of his writing-----to claim on the failure of delivery of the 20000 ton rice，which will sound natural and readily acceptable and comprehensible to native English speakers. The sequence of thoughts, the purpose and the reasoning are all well composed.

Another justifiable instance comes from a joke in Chinese that reads:

31a: 其翁见子，趔趔趄趄从猪舍转出。情知醉酒，忙购糖水梨四瓶，强灌之，方解其酒。子酒醒，再看猪，猪已醉死。

If literally rendered, it will surely make no sense to English readers, as the sentences seldom tell the logical relationship between each other. So the English translation reads:

31b: When the sir saw his offspring reeling out of the pigsty, he gathered t hat he’d had a drop too much. He hastened out, bought four bottles of pears in syrup, forced them down the throat of his son and succeeded in having the effects of liquor alleviated. His son sobered up, the old man turned to look at the pigs. They were all dead, victims of alcoholism.

A brief comparison will indicate that there are not only syntactic changes in the translation but also great changes in the viewpoints of narration, esp. in those sentences without subject in the Chinese original story.

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The internal logic relations among semantic segments are not clearly or directly stated in the Chinese but rather indicated by the context and have to be recognized by the reader. Yet in the English, it’s always necessary to state the relationship clearly or the sentences would sound awkward or meaningless. The reason for these is the difference in the thinking modes of the Chinese and that of the English.

3.2.5 Grammatical features

Due to the English people’s emphasis on objective observation and the Chinese nation’s focus on subject perceptions, sentence with an inanimate subject or in passive voice are more popular in English while the Chinese prefer active voice or sentences without subject. E.g.

32a: Yet the Nile has been changed by modern man in ways not yet fully understood.

32b: 然而现代人却使尼罗河发生了变化，不过就连他们自己也不完全了解尼罗河就近发生了什么变化。

33a: Standing on a sandy beach at the mouth of the Rosetta branch of the Nile, I was puzzled by what seemed a ghost town.

33b: 罗塞塔河是尼罗河入海口出的一个之流，我站在河口的沙滩上看到一个小镇，感到迷惑不解，这仿佛是一个被人遗弃了的小镇。

In some other grammatical aspects, Chinese has no grammatical changes in the morphemes while it is just too common in English to change the forms of words for different grammatical functions. Referring to almost any Chinese writing and comparing it with similar English version, we have little or no difficulty finding abundant instance to this effect.

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4 The Impact of Thinking Patterns on Translation

In practical translation, green hands have never shown enough errors resulting from insufficient consideration of the different thinking modes between the English and the Chinese. Such translations are usually literally and grammatically flawless, and sometimes read native, yet genuine native speakers of English will feel awkward in reading such translation and yet stay at loss where the problem lies. Such problems can be categorized into five: stubborn rendering, misleading rendering, awkward transferring, wordy diction and inaccurate translation in sequential ranks in light of degree of inaccuracy.

4.1 Stubborn rendering resulting from ignorance of different syntactic preferences

The most serious problem resulting from ignorance of differences in thinking modes between the Chinese and the English is the stubborn rendering, even without considering the syntactic preferences of the two nations. Such problems are related to the basic language skills of the translator and are easily solvable by improving demand of the two languages.

34a: 如果要从过去的某个时间向前衡量时，只有下面的结构才是常用的。 *34b: In measuring forwards from a point of time in the past, only the following construction is normal.

34c: In measuring backward from a point of time in the past, only the following construction is normal.

34b will surely mislead the English readers, as it is stubborn literal word-for-word translation of the Chinese origin. 34c conveys the true meaning of the Chinese.

How to translate the Chinese idiom “惩前毖后”? The proper English version reads “to learn from the past time to avoid future ones”. But if stubbornly rendered into “to punish the future mistakes to avoid past mistakes”, the phrase will be rather puzzling to English readers. Here the phrase “前” (forward) and “后”(backward) are just opposite in the Chinese and English thinking patterns and should not be literally rendered, as the two nations have different syntactic preferences.

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4.2 Misleading rendering due to differences in viewpoints

In the rational English thinking patterns, objective items are usually positioned as the subject of the sentence, to be followed by systematic and strictly logical analysis, but without much emphasis on the human perceptions. The Chinese, in contrast, is person-oriented and lays great emphasis on the observer’s personal experiencing and perceptions. In too many cases, ignorance of such sharp contrast leads to misunderstanding and inaccurate or even opposite translation between the too nations. 35a. What I saw that day in Madrial was mild compared to what happened in Italy and Brazil when their two favored terms was shamefully defeated in early rounds. *35b: 那天我在卫德里的所见可算温和了，与在早先的比赛中，意大利人和巴西人喜爱的球队不光彩地踢败时，在意大利和巴西引起的轰动相比。

35c: 那天我在卫德里看球时，意大利人和巴西人的表现可算温和了，早些时候他们喜欢的球队惨败时，他们可没这么温和。

36a. American education was a great debt to Thomas Jefferson.

*36b: 美国教育对于托马斯。杰弗逊来说是一个巨大的债务。

36c: 托马斯。杰弗逊对美国教育做出了巨大贡献。

35b and 36b are both instances of misleading rendering due to differences in viewpoints. But 35c and 36c are much better because the translator has taken into consideration the differences in the viewpoints in the thinking patterns of the two nations and has changed the viewpoints in accordance with that of the TL nation.

4.3 Awkward transferring for ignorance of rhetoric preferences

The English and the Chinese peoples have developed their own special rhetoric preferences in the long history of their generations. What appears natural and quire rhetoric to one nation may sound awkward or confusing to the other. So such rhetoric preferences shall also be considered in the translation between the two languages. The most common instance is the understanding of west wind and east wind. In England, west wind is mild and pleasant and stands for something good, and east wind is not so much appreciated. But in China, west wind is tough and causes damages to people and is symbolic of wicked power, while east wind blowing in from the Pacific Ocean is moderate and humid and has done so much favor to the nation - 27 -

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that it has always been symbolic of positive power. So, if literally translated, readers of the other nation may have great difficulty perceiving the author or speaker. Unfortunately, similar instances abound between the two nations and are available almost everywhere. E.g. “入木三分”( three inches into the wood)-----penetrating (analysis); “胸有成竹”(with a bamboo in one’s stomach)------quite confident; “work as hard as a horse”-------“埋头苦干”（work very hard）, “Milky Way”-------“银河系”

37a: How does this happen?

*37b: 这是怎么发生的呢？

37c: 这是怎么回事呢？

38a: The idea came to him in his bath.

*38b: 那个主意在他洗澡中来到他这里。

38c:他在洗澡时想起那主意

37 is of course consistent with 38a the English sentence and comprehensible to the Chinese but sound awkward and can hardly comply with the Chinese rhetoric conventions. 38c is much better. The same is true of 38 group.

All these phrases and sentences, if literally rendered, will cause jokes and misunderstanding in the TL, and shall be absolutely avoided. What we should do is just consider the rhetoric preferences of the two nations and try to find equivalents in the TL.

4.4 Wordy diction regardless of the syntactic structural differences

As previously discussed, differences in thinking modes have caused some syntactic variations in English and Chinese literature. So, it’s quite crucial for translators between these two languages to take into consideration of such syntactic factors and try to decode the SL text with thorough understanding and to encode it in the TL accordingly. The following examples

39a: 听到他的话不禁打了个寒战。

*39b: I heard his words and quivered.

39c: His words sent a quiver through my body.

40a: 有一种方言，这间屋子里的每位语言学家都懂得。

*40b: There is a dialect, every linguist in this room knows it.

40c: A dialect is known by every linguist in this room.

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41a: That girl is a very subtle study psychologically.

*41b: 那个女孩是一个心理方面非常微妙的研究。

41c: 那个女孩是研究微妙心理的好对象。

42a: He is dishonest.

42b: 他不诚实。

42c: 他没有说实话。

39b, 40b, 41b and 42b are all instances of literal rendering regardless of the syntactic structural differences between English and Chinese. They are literally correct and corresponding to the SL sentences but the TL translations are mostly awkward and sometimes misleading. All this has been caused by the syntactic preferences of the two nations. So it’s quite important for translators to avoid such mistakes and try to abide by the syntactic conventions of the TL nations.

4.5 Inaccurate translation caused by improper diction

As known to all, diction is not only important in writing and speaking, but also essential for quality translation. Thorough understanding or comprehensive decoding is not enough for successful translation. Proper diction in the TL can greatly improve the quality of our translation, and can sometimes even help avoid mistakes in our translation. e.g.

43a: 当前，车辆横冲直闯，严重地威胁着城市生活，路上行人无不提心吊胆。

*43b: Nowadays, cars dash around like mad on the road, it imperils the city life, and pedestrians are in constant fear.

*43c: Nowadays, the clashing and rushing car seriously menaces the citizens’ life. No one can cross the road without fear.

43d: The present onslaught of vehicle poses a serious threat to urban life and pedestrians peace of mind.

44a: It had been a fine, golden autumn, a lovely farewell to those who would lose their youth, and some of them their lives before the leaves turned again in a peacetime fall.

*44b: 这个秋天叶子还未完全凋零。秀丽、平和的金秋，是对那些可能耗去青春，甚至献出生命的人们的美好祝福。

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Undergraduate Thesis of School of Foreign Studies of Yangtze University

*44c: 那是一个美好的金秋。在告别了那些可能丢失他们的青春甚至生命的人之后，树叶才慢慢地落下。

44d: 那是个天气晴朗，金黄可爱的秋天，美好的秋色为那些青年们送别。待到战后和平时期，黄叶纷飞的秋天再度来临时，当日的青年已经失去了青春，有的丧失了生命。

It’s not difficult to find that the above translations are all acceptable to the TL readers but those with “*” are much inferior in diction and do not offer native English narrations. Such requirement is somewhat beyond the translation strategies but is also quite helpful to improving the quality of our translation. Translators may achieve this goal by improving their own writing skills.

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Undergraduate Thesis of School of Foreign Studies of Yangtze University

5 Some Practical Approaches in Translation Between the Two Languages

5.1 Sufficient cultural background information

Sufficient cultural background information is not only helpful but also necessary in successful translation between two languages as distant from each other as Chinese and English. But it’s easier said than done, as culture is such an all-round concept and concerns so may aspects of our lives and languages. No one can be fully informed in this aspect, and what we can do is try to learn more about it and put it into our translation.

The phrases “我们看到富国与贫国之间存在着今人难以接受的显著差距” and “再生性能源将有助于消除这种全球性的社会不公 ” are unique sentences in Chinese, but can be directly placed together, which is unacceptable in English. In the Chinese version there are three phrases, which are placed directly together without clear conjunctions. But though there is not any conjunction to link them it can also be clearly understood. So the readers could not judge the relationship from the language expression just like that in English. In order to understand the meanings implied in the phrases the readers must judge from a higher degree ----intuition. In a word, based on visualized mode of thought, Chinese tends to express abstract concept using paratactic forms that contains many implied meanings between the lines. Only in simple sentences can the author express abundant meanings with artistic conceptions.

What is assuring now is that, with the expansion of globalization, inter-cultural communication is also developing rapidly and peoples of different cultural backgrounds are more and more ready to learn and adopt the cultural elements of other nations. This has and will greatly facilitate translation in concern of cultural differences. But Rome is not built in a day, and translators shall spare no effort in promoting such cross-cultural integration and mutual development.

5.2 Shifting translation

Shifting translation has originated in psychological study of language behavior, meaning the alternation between two languages concerned. But here it is adopted to refer to the changes of speech parts between the two languages concerned in translation. It is somewhat similar to borrowing, the term commonly accepted in - 31 -

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translation strategies, but is also essentially different from it.

Borrowing translation has been widely applied in those with ready equivalents between the SL and the TL. In such cases, the translations in the TL are not only readily accepted but also vividly perceived by the TL readers.

First shifting is lexical shifting-----not only change the parts of speech of words, but also specify or expand the sense of some words: e.g.

45a: To it we owe the existence of the motor cars; To it we owe the possibility of flying.

45b: 因为有了这种油。我们产能用上汽车，就是因为有了这种油。我们才有可能飞行。

46a: Their galabias and tables strained by the sweat and dirt of a long day’s work, they sat in front of a wayside ship, enjoying those of the best things in life along the Nile---tea conversation and the water-pipes.

46b: 他们干了一天活，袍子和头巾上又是汗又是土，这时候他们坐在路边一家店门口，享受尼罗河沿岸人们生活里的三件最大的乐事---喝茶，聊天，抽水烟。

In 45a and 46b, the word “it” is specified as “oil” in light of the context while in 46a and 46b, the noun phrases “tea, conversation and water-pipes” are shifted into verb phrases.

There are also some other shifts in some other cases:

47a: The sight and sound of the jet plane filled me with special longing.

47b: 看见一架喷气式飞机，听见隆隆分飞机声，我特别神往。

48a: The author is grateful to his colleague for their valuable suggestions.

48b: 作者感谢同事们提出的宝贵意见。

49a: We opened the window to let the fresh air in.

49b: 我们打开窗户放进新鲜空气。

50a: They kept on fighting in spite of all difficulties and setbacks.

50b: 她们不顾一切困难和挫折，坚持战斗。

In these sentences there is shifting between different parts of speech. But in still other cases, the shifts take place not on the lexical level but on syntactic or grammatical levels: e.g.

51a:Yet the Nile has been changed by modern men in ways not yet fully understood.

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51b:然而现代人却使尼罗河发生了变化，不过就连他们自己也不完全了解这些变化。（from passive voice to active voice）

The shifting of semantic order is also possible in translation: e.g.

52a:I met an old friend in the street yesterday evening when I haven’t seen for years

52b: 昨晚我在大街上遇到了我多年未见得老朋友。 （information sequence within a sentence）

53a: James Briedley of Staffordshaire started his self-made career in 17833 by working at mill wheels at the age of seventeen having being born poor in a village.

53b: 斯塔福郡的詹姆斯布林德雷，出生在一个贫苦的农村家庭，1733年，他17岁，就着手改良磨坊离得车轮，从而开始了他自我奋斗的生涯。（change in time sequence and logic order）

5.3 Graphic translation

One particular kind of stylized illustration---- graphic translation----evolved from the poster tradition of Switzerland and Germany in early part of the twentieth century. Graphic translation combines some attributes of both icon and symbol. It depicts subject in a literal way, like an icon, but also in a self-conscious abstract way that takes on symbolic quality. [1]

The process of graphic translation produces drawings of instant recognition and startling visual interest. Graphic translation is as much art as it is design and focuses on the creation of an image with point, line, plane, shade, and shadow. Over 300 examples portray a multitude of individual approaches to the drawing system and give the designer, educator, and student insight into understanding and learning this method of graphic drawing.[2]

The two quotations above show that graphic translation has originated as a technological term. But here, graphic translation means “taking the SL text into the TL text it is, without any modification or rhetoric amendment”. Sometimes the English and the Chinese, though distant and different from each other, have developed similar thoughts and similar expressions for similar issues. In such cases, shifting translation will be most advisable. Such translation can not only best convey the core value of the SL text, but also retain the special rhetoric and stylistic features and will - 33 -

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be readily perceived by the readers of the TL. e.g.

54a. 挂羊头，卖狗肉。

54b: He cries wine and sells vinegar.

55a. 老牛不喝水，不能强按头

55b: You may take a horse to the water, but can’t make it drink.

56a. 三个臭皮匠，赛过诸葛亮

56b: Three cobblers together have more with than Zhuge Liang.

57a: Wisdom prepares for the worst, but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.

57b: 聪明人防患于未然，而愚蠢者临渴掘井。

58a. 望梅止渴。

59b: Console oneself with false hopes.

*59c: Quench one’s thirst by thinking of plums.

60a: Four scores and seven years ago, our father brought foot on this continent

60b: 87年前，我们的先辈们在这个大陆上创立了一个新的国家，它孕育于自然中，奉行所有人生来平等的原则。

Lexically, in 57a, wisdom and folly refer to two kinds of people though literally the two terms are two kinds of intellectual status. Therefore the Chinese translation personalized the two terms into “聪明人(wise men) and愚蠢者(foolish people) respectively. Yet if literally translated, the Chinese readers would feel quite some discomfort in reading such translation. 58a is another instance of the tactic. But it’s easy to find that 59c may not be so well received because it only coveys the literal meaning of the SL and may lead to puzzle to the TL readers.

Therefore we can see that shifting translation is really simple and efficient in some cases and shall be adopted as the best approach to such translation.

5.4 Backward translation

According to La Hejj, (La Hejj，1996，648-665), backward translation (different from back translation) refers to a psychological process in translation in which previous translation of a SL text is amended and adjusted in light of latter parts of the text being translated. That means, translator have to make some improvement, amendment or realignment of his translation when the translated part(s) do(es) not - 34 -

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agree with the later part(s) of the translation in the TL text. This is of great importance in light of the differences between the Chinese and the English in their thinking modes. E.g.

60a: In that case, you must realize that while you can still render them material service, such as making them an allowance or knitting them jumpers, you must not expect that they will enjoy your company.

60b: 在那种情况下，您必须意识到，当您能仍然给他们提供物质服务时，例如给他们零花钱或织毛衣，您不能期望他们将享受您的陪伴。

60c:在这种情况下, 你可要明白, 虽然你还可以在物质方面给他们以帮助, 比如给他们零用钱, 或者为他们织毛衣, 但你绝不要指望他们会喜欢跟你做伴。 It’s not difficult to find that backward translation has made 60c a much better translation of 60a. Actually in longer contexts, backward translation is even more important and beneficial.

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Undergraduate Thesis of School of Foreign Studies of Yangtze University

6. Conclusion

From the comparison of the English-Chinese languages and their modes of thought, we may see that they are of one thing but two aspects. Resulted from different cultural background, the differences of their modes of thought have greatly determined their own languages. On the other hand, the languages also reflect and influenced their thinking patterns. So in order to learn English well and better master the two languages the thinking patterns should be studied deeply. In my own opinion, the study of languages from the degree of thinking pattern will greatly benefit the learners. For example, it will give the guide to the teaching of second language and the writing of composition. Of course mode of thought belongs to philosophy. So it is a very complicated concept, and to go deep into it will need a very long time and also requires many efforts.

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1997: 236.

[24]陈宏薇. 新实用汉译英教程[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，1996: 136.

[25]陈葵阳. 从构建主义观点谈翻译课堂教学[J]. 中国翻译，2005(03): 46-47.

[26]丛滋杭. 翻译理论与翻译教学[J]. 中国科技翻译，2007(01): 62.

[27]邓炎昌，刘润清.语言与文化——英汉语言对比研究[M]. 北京：外语教学与

研究出版社，1997.05: 483.

[28]范仲英. 翻译教程[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，1994: 98-100.

[30]刘宓庆. 翻译教学：实物与理论[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2003:

323-324.

[31]_______. 汉英对比研究与翻译[M]. 南昌：江西教育出版社，1991: 388.

[32]胡文仲主编. 跨文化交际面面观[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1999.11:

352.

[33]贾德江. 汉语对比研究与翻译[M]. 国防科技大学出版社，2002: 166.

[33]金圣华. “翻译工作坊”教学法剖析[J]. 翻译学报，2000 (04): 36-37.

[34]李威. 跨文化非言语交际对外语教学的启示[J]. 六盘水师范高等专科学校学

报，2002.03. 这表示：20xx年第3期，第46至47面。 如果不写页码，则写为： 2005（3）。

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Undergraduate Thesis of School of Foreign Studies of Yangtze University

[35]连淑能. 论中西思维方式. 刘润清，胡壮麟主编. 语言文化差异的认识与超越

[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2003.08: 88.

[36]毛荣贵. 新世纪大学英汉翻译教程[M]. 上海交通大学出版社，2002.08: 420.

[37]穆雷. 翻译事业何以发展-翻译教学及其研究[J]. 外国语，1997: 66.

[38]_____. 近50年中国翻译教学研究的发展与现状[J]. 广东外语外贸大学学报，

2007(05): 69.

[39]唐高元，张玉哲. Intercultural Nonverbal Communication and Foreign Language

Teaching[J]. 广西梧州师范高等专科学校学报，2004(11): 1.

[40]汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响[J]. 外语与外语教学，2003(03) :

36.

[41]王武兴. 英汉互译指导与篇章翻译[M]. 北京：北京朝华出版社，2004.

[42]王振亚主编. 语言与文化[M]. 高等教育出版社，2004.07: 10.

[43]许力生主编. 跨文化交流入门[M]. 浙江大学出版社，2004.08: 122.

[44]张萍. 英汉思维差异对翻译的影响[J]. 常州工学院学报（社科版），2007，

12: 82.

[45]杨社英，盖会双. 英汉思维差异及对翻译的影响[J]. 河北经贸大学学报（综

合版），2008(03): 70.

[46]张思洁，张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思[J]. 中国翻译，2001(07): 13.

[47]赵霞，徐瑞风. 从中西思维视角看英语语法[J]. 西安外国语学院学报，

2004(03): 35.

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Undergraduate Thesis of School of Foreign Studies of Yangtze University

注：

中文书目：

参考文献是对期刊论文引文进行统计和分析的重要信息源之一，在本规范中采用GB 7714推荐的顺序编码制格式著录。

一、参考文献著录项目

① 主要责任者(专著作者、论文集主编、学位申报人、专利申请人、报告撰写人、期刊文章作者、析出文章作者)。多个责任者之间以“，”分隔，注意在本项数据中不得出现缩写点“.”（英文作者请将作者名写全）。主要责任者只列姓名，其后不加“著”、“编”、“主编”、“合编”等责任说明。② 文献题名及版本(初版省略)。③ 文献类型及载体类型标识。④ 出版项(出版地、出版者、出版年)。⑤ 文献出处或电子文献的可获得地址。⑥ 文献起止页码。⑦ 文献标准编号(标准号、专利号??)。

二、参考文献类型及其标识

根据 GB 3469规定，以单字母方式标识以下各种参考文献类型：

参考文献类型、文献类型标识

专著[M]. 论文集[C]. 报纸文章[N]. 期刊文章[J]. 学位论文[D]. 报告[R]. 标准[S]. 专利 [P]。对于专著、论文集中的析出文献，其文献类型标识建议采用单字母“[A]”；对于其他未说明的文献类型，建议采用单字母“[Z]”。

对于数据库(database)、计算机程序(computer program)及电子公告(electronic bulletin board)等电子文献类型的参考文献，建议以下列双字母作为标识：

电子参考文献类型、标识

数据库[DB]. 计算机程序[CP]. 电子公告[EB]

三、电子文献的载体类型及其标识

对于非纸张型载体的电子文献，当被引用为参考文献时需在参考文献类型标识中同时标明其载体类型。本规范建议采用双字母表示电子文献载体类型：磁带(magnetic tape)——[MT]. 磁盘(disk)——[DK]. 光盘(CD-ROM)——[CD]. 联机网络(online)——[OL]. 并以下列格式表示包括了文献载体类型的参考文献类型标识：

［文献类型标识/载体类型标识］

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Undergraduate Thesis of School of Foreign Studies of Yangtze University

如：［DB/OL］—— 联机网上数据库(database online)

［DB/MT］—— 磁带数据库(database on magnetic tape)

［M/CD］—— 光盘图书(monograph on CD-ROM)

［CP/DK］—— 磁盘软件(computer program on disk)

［J/OL］—— 网上期刊(serial online)

［EB/OL］—— 网上电子公告(electronic bulletin board online) 以纸张为载体的传统文献在引作参考文献时不必注明其载体类型。

四、文后参考文献表编排格式

参照ISO 690及ISO 690-2，每一参考文献条目的最后均以“.”结束。各类参考文献条目的编排格式及示例如下：

1.专著、论文集、学位论文、报告

主要责任者.文献题名［文献类型标识］.出版地：出版者，出版年: 起止页码(实际引用页码) .

刘国钧，陈绍业，王凤翥. 图书馆目录［M］.北京：高等教育出版社，1957: 15-18. 辛希孟.信息技术与信息服务国际研讨会论文集：A集［C］.北京：中国社会科

学出版社，1994.

张筑生.微分半动力系统的不变集［D］.北京：北京大学数学系数学研究所，1983. 冯西桥.核反应堆压力管道与压力容器的LBB分析［R］.北京：清华大学核能技

术设计研究院，1997.

2.期刊文章

主要责任者. 文献题名［J］. 刊名，年（卷）（期）： 起止页码.

何龄修.读顾城《南明史》［J］.中国史研究，1998(03)：167-173.

金显贺，王昌长，王忠东，等.一种用于在线检测局部放电的数字滤波技术［J］.

清华大学学报(自然科学版)，1993(4): 62-67.

3.论文集中的析出文献

析出文献主要责任者. 析出文献题名 ［A］. 原文献主要责任者(即：编者) . 原文献题名［C］. 出版地：出版者，出版年. 析出文献起止页码.

钟文发.非线性规划在可燃毒物配置中的应用［A］.赵玮.运筹学的理论与应用—

—中国运筹学会第五届大会论文集［C］.西安：西安电子科技大学出版社，1996: 468-471.

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Undergraduate Thesis of School of Foreign Studies of Yangtze University

4.报纸文章

主要责任者. 文献题名［N］. 报纸名，出版日期 (版次) .

谢希德.创造学习的新思路［N］.人民日报，1998-12-25(10) .

5..国际、国家标准

标准编号，标准名称 ［S］.

GB/T 16159-1996，汉语拼音正词法基本规则［S］.

6.专利

专利所有者. 专利题名［P］. 专利国别：专利号，出版日期.

姜锡洲.一种温热外敷药制备方案［P］.中国专利：881056073，1989-07-26.

7.电子文献

主要责任者.电子文献题名［电子文献及载体类型标识］.电子文献的出处或可获得地址，发表或更新日期/引用日期(任选) .

王明亮.关于中国学术期刊标准化数据库系统工程的进展［EB/OL］.

http://www.//pub/wml.txt/980810-2.html,1998-08-16/1998-10-04.

万锦坤. 中国大学学报论文文摘(1983-1993) . 英文版 ［DB/CD］. 北京:中国

大百科全书出版社，1996.

8.各种未定义类型的文献

主要责任者.文献题名［Z］. 出版地：出版者，出版年.

五、参考文献与注释的区别

参考文献是作者写作论著时所参考的文献书目，一般集中列表于文末；注释是对论著正文中某一特定内容的进一步解释或补充说明，一般排印在该页地脚。参考文献序号用方括号标注，而注释用数字加圆圈标注(如①、②?)。

六：参考文献的排列顺序，先英文，后中文。英文按开头字母从A到Z的顺序排列，中文按开头文字的汉语拼音从A到Z的顺序排列。

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Undergraduate Thesis of School of Foreign Studies of Yangtze University

Acknowledgements

I have eternal gratitude to…, my thesis supervisor, for his inestimable help and valuable instruction, and to Professor …, for his insightful lectures, which inspire me to compose this dissertation.

I am greatly indebted to Professor … for his allowing me to have access to his books pertinent to this dissertation.

I also thank those who help me in course of the writing and whose names I can’t list here one by one.

(提到一般大学老师，在不特别指明其姓名时，不用teacher 而是统一用professor。只有在特别说明某老师，且冠以技术头衔，后加其姓/姓名时，才根据其技术职称加以说明。对于 “论文导师”，统一称 “thesis supervisor” 。)

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Appendix for Undergraduate Thesis of School of Foreign Studies of Yangtze University

附件一，文献翻译（译文）

译 转引自让国外的消费这把中国的商品当作一种诱饵来买他们，广告扮然而，介绍这些广告在国外的市场有 在传统翻译者也用这两种传统的翻

然而一些事物的广告翻译是目标语言的写作者，由于不同的文化和风俗习惯；“信，达，雅”不能解释所有广告的翻译。

出售翻译行为是人为行为的策略。莎士比娅认为翻译是一种目的很清楚的行为，在不同文化中的转化开始在原文本和读者目标文本的目的。广告的翻译是一种语言的转化，也是一种商业行为。莎士比娅解释广告翻译是很清楚的理解广告翻译的意图和目的并且是一种商业行为的运行，广告翻译有多种策略被认可是由于不同的历史，文化和价值。

这一章主要讨论翻译策略我们翻译中国的广告到英语。有三种主要的策略，直译和适译和仿译。

3.1直译

直译是保持目标语的形式并且不能让人不能理解的，原语的内容和形式等原语的暗喻，风格和自然形式都要保持的，一句话，直译意味着原语逐字的和非逐字的成分能够直接的翻译成目标文本除了调解和同化。直译是原语是保持原来的并且是来自原始的文本。

通常直译是提供产品的增强比如技术和办公设备。在那些文本里，广告语言是广 泛的。广告里面所有的成分，报告书统计都是真实的。在这种广告中都是有文

44

Appendix for Undergraduate Thesis of School of Foreign Studies of Yangtze University

附件二，文献翻译（原文）

Literature Translation (English original)

.cn

more Chinese products are exported on receivers with the excellent advertisements to foreign market gets

only at the language level, it also reflects the differences in religion, culture, tradition, thought patterned. A large number of advertisements are hard to understand, even sometimes misunderstood by foreign receivers, or just plains introduction without any excitement.

In fact, in translating Chinese advertisements into English, little attention is paid to the linguistic and cultural differences between Chinese and English. People usually just focus on language without considering culture, the receivers of target text, etc. In traditional translation theories, literal translation and free translation are the main translation methods. Translators still use the two traditional methods to deal with advertising translation. However, the object of advertising translation is target-text reader, for the different cultures and customs; the principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance" cannot explain and guide all advertisement translations.

Placing translation action in the theory of human action, Skopostheorie think that translation is an action with clear purpose and intention, an intercultural exchange starting from the source text and aiming at target text readers. Advertising translation is language transference, also a business action. Using skopostheorie to explain and guide advertising translation is to clearly understand the purpose and intention of advertising translation and operate the business action of advertising translation with kinds of translation methods considering the differences between histories, culture, and value.

45

长江大学毕业论文(设计)课题申报、审核表

（2011—2012学年）

请写明题目来源单位；若结合教学，请写明与教学相关的内容，如为实验室建设，写明为哪个实验室，哪项技术改造或实验项目开发。

I

以下资料是为大家写作之需而提供，非本格式要求内容。 英语专业毕业论文写作资料查询网址

1. 中国国家图书馆：http://www.lib.

2. 清华大学图书馆：http://www.lib./

3. 北京大学图书馆：http://www.lib./

4. 北京师范大学图书馆：http://www.lib./

5. 南京大学图书馆：http://202.119.47.3/

6. 复旦大学图书馆：http://www.library.

7. 北京外国语大学图书馆：http://www./enet/lib/tsg.htm 8. 厦门大学图书馆：http://210.34.4.20/

9. 广东外语外贸大学图书馆：http://202.116.197.6/gplib.htm 10. 美国国会图书馆：http://leweb.loc.gov

11. 英国外语辅助教学图书馆：http://www.sussex.ac.uk/langc/call.html 12. 美国世界图书馆网络中心：http://library.usask.ca/ejournals 13. 人文科学在线杂志图书馆：http://166.111.88.20/index.htm 14. 中国在线图书馆：http://netsupport./navigation/navindex.htm 15. OCLC联机计算机图书馆中心：/ 16. 语言文学在线资源库（Online MLA International Bibliography）：/catalog/mlab.htm

17. 英语和外语教学在线杂志：/eflweb/home.htm 18. “美国研究”网页：http://www.georgetown.edu/crossroads/asw 19. ERIC英语教学文摘档案库：http://eric-web/tc.columbia.edu/abstracts 20. 中国期刊网：http://166.111.88.20/index.htm/

21. 美国ISI公司Arts and Humanities Citation Index (A & HCI)-1975-present：/help/helptoc.html#abhci

22. 美国ISI公司Social Science Citation Index (SSCI)-1975-present：/help/helptoc.htmo#ssci

23. Uncover期刊论文原文传递服务系统：/reveal/ 24. 美国Brown大学语言学虚拟图书馆：http://www.cog.brpwn.edu/pointers/liguistics.html 25. 英国London大学Berkbeck学院应用语言学图书馆：http://alt.venus.co.uk/VL/AppLingBBK

26. 美国ERIC（教育資源信息中心）语言与语言学资料交换中心：opher://ericir.syr.edu:70/11/clearinghouse/16houses/CLL/ERIC-LL 国内外外语与外语教学类网址

1. Applied linguistics virtual library: http://alt.venus.co.uk/AppLingBBK/welcome.Html 2. Human language page: http://www.June29.com/HLP

3. Linguistic resources on the Internet: /linguidtics 4. Universal survey of language: /~napoleon 5. 中国基础教育网：.cn

6. 中国英语教师网：.cn

7. 美国全球英语学习网：

外国语学院英语系

20xx年12月

II