Gender difference is not the excuse of sex

discrimination

Lawrence Summers, Harvard University President,was being criticized for saying that women lack the "natural ability" to do as well as men in science and engineering.When referring to gender difference and sex discrimination,I think physiological difference between femal and male should be objectively recognized,but the right and ability on pursuit of knowledge are coordinate.

In a keynote speech at a conference on diversity, Summers hypothesized that the shortage of women in certain disciplines could be explained by innate differences in mathematical ability. In my opinion, I don’t think gender was relevant to any career aspirations, but having so many options may be why women are underrepresented in fields like science and math. Women,I think, tend to have a broader array of career options than men.So women perform about the same as men in math classes, but are still less likely than men to seek a career in science, technology, engineering or math.Also, study suggests the reason may be a lack of role models, resulting in females in the field feeling like they don't belong.

Undoubly,there are many differences between men and women,and furtherstudy of the major resons of the representation of women among science and engineering faculty are needed.However, sex discrimination is absolutely wrong. To conclude, do so-called differences in mathematical ability matter at all? The debate on the issue has so far missed the central point: scientists are made, not born.At every level of the scientific enterprise, from grade school through grad school and beyond, our society is failing to make as many women scientists as it could—perhaps because we are too mesmerized by the idea that scientists have to be born.

 

第二篇：19xx 中国人群自杀的性别差异 The gender difference in Chinese suicide rates

ArchivesofSuicideResearch3:81–89,1997.

c1997KluwerAcademicPublishers.PrintedintheNetherlands.

Article

ThegenderdifferenceinChinesesuiciderates

ZHAOXIONGHE1&DAVIDLESTER2

1

2GuangxiAcademyofSocialSciences,30XinZhuRoad,Nanning,Guangxi,China530022;CenterfortheStudyofSuicide,Blackwood,NJ,U.S.A.

Accepted1May1996

Abstract.ChinesewomenhaveahigherrateofsuicidethanChinesemenintheregionsofmainlandChinacurrentlyreportingmortalitydatatotheWorldHealthOrganization.Thisgenderdifferenceisdocumented,andpossiblereasonsforthegenderdifferencesareexploredusingdatafromasurveyoffemalesuicidesinChuanzhouCountyintheGuangxiregionofChina.Ade?nitiveexplanationforthegenderdifferencemustawaitdetailedpsychologicalautopsystudies.

Keywords:China,genderdifferences,suiciderates

Introduction

InChina,femaleshavehighersuicideratesthandomen.Incontrast,inalmostallothernations,menhavehigherratesofsuicide,thoughinsomenationsthefemalesuicideratehasbeenrisinginrecentyears.ThispaperexploresthereasonsforthehighsuiciderateinChinesewomenanddiscusseswhetherfemaleliberationispartlyresponsibleforthisgenderdifference.

Lester(1982)notedthattheratioofthemaletothefemalesuicideratein1975variedovertheregionsoftheworld:inSouthAmericannationsthemeanwas3.45,EasternEurope3.22,NorthAmerica2.70,MiddleAmericaandtheCaribbean2.66,Europe2.21,thePaci?c2.01,theMiddleEast1.67andWesternAsia1.35.TherehasbeennoplausibleexplanationofthelowratioforAsiannations,andthepresentdataonChinawillshowthattheChineseratioforsuicideratesisperhapsonlyanextensionofthisgenerallylowAsianrate.

Lesteralsofoundthattheagedistributionofmaleandfemalesuicideratesdiffered.Formeninnationsateverylevelofeconomicdevelopment,thesuicideratespeakedforthoseovertheageof75.Forwomen,however,thepeaksuiciderateswerefoundinthoseaged55–64forthewealthiestnations(intermsofgrossnationalproductpercapita),rosetothoseaged75andolderinthepoorernations,butpeakedforwomenaged15–24inthepoorest

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nations.Morerecentresearchhascon?rmedthesegenderdifferences(Girard,1993).

Inrecentyears,theratioofthemalesuicideratetothefemalesuicideratehasbeenincreasing.Lester(1990a)foundthatfrom1970–1984,thegenderratiorosein16of23nationswithavailabledata,signi?cantlysoin11(versusonlyonenationshowingasigni?cantdecreaseinthegenderratio).DatafromWHOfor1970and1990areshowninTable1(WorldHealthOrganization,annual),whereitcanbeseenthat25nationsexperiencedanincreaseinthegenderratioversus11whichexperiencedadecrease(X2=5.44,df=1,p<0.02).

Interestingly,inanearlyreportonsuicideinChina,Gamble(1921)esti-matedthemalesuiciderateinBeijingin1917tobe18.0whilethefemalesuicideratewas11.1.DataonChinesesuicidedidnotappearuntilthe1980swhenthesuicideratewasfoundtobehigheramongChinesefemalesthanamongChinesemales(Lester,1990b;Zhaoetal.,1994).

DataonChinesesuiciderates

ChinareportsdatatotheWorldHealthOrganizationbasedonapopulationof140million,abouthalflivinginurbanareasandhalfinruralareas.Thedatafor1987to1989areshowninTables2and3.

Themale/femalegenderratioforthetotalsuicideratefor1987–1989rangedfrom0.73to0.77.Thegenderratioforurbanareaswasalittlehigherthanforruralareas(0.76–0.79versus0.72–0.76).

WhencomparedwiththesuicideratesinotherChinesepopulations,thegenderratioforthesuicideratesinChinaarelower.Lester(1994)reportedmale/femaleratiosforsuicideratesamongChinesepopulationsin1980of

1.21fortheUSA,1.21forHongKong,1.24forTaiwanand1.19forSinga-pore.Incontrast,whendatafromWesternnationsareexamined,thegenderratioaremuchhigher,risinguptoover9.00(seeTable1).

ThisgenderratioinChinaisfoundinallagegroupsexceptforthoseaged5–14andthoseovertheageof55.Theratiowaslowestforthoseaged15–24yearsofageandhighestforthoseovertheageof75.Thesuicideratepeakedforwomenaged75+,thesameasformen.However,therelativesuicideriskforwomen,asexpressedinthegenderratio,isgreatestforthoseaged15–24andleastforthoseovertheageof75.

Thegenderratiosaresimilarforruralregionstothoseforurbanregions,indicatingthatthevariableofindustrialversusagriculturalemploymentisnotresponsibleforthegenderdifferenceinChinesesuiciderates.

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Table1.Genderratiosforsuicideratesfornationsin1970and1990(fromWHOdata)

1970

ArgentinaArmeniaAustraliaAustriaBelgiumBulgariaCanadaChileColombiaCostaRicaCzechRepublicCzechoslovakiaDenmark

DominicanRepublicEcuadorElSalvadorEstoniaFinlandFrance

Germany,EastGermany,WestGreeceGuatemalaHongKongHungaryIrelandIsraelItalyJapan

KazakhstanKrygyzstanLatviaLithuaniaMauritiusMexicoNetherlandsNewZealandNorwayPanamaParaguayPeru

2.92–2.242.501.942.092.533.843.427.71–2.761.751.332.137.87–3.742.711.841.882.565.301.312.576.001.502.311.30––––5.803.601.601.912.365.892.252.31

19902.622.293.982.60–2.353.92–7.672.693.071.98–––2.963.982.672.352.333.67–1.242.803.062.642.781.653.262.854.034.571.635.571.714.022.91–––

DecreaseIncreaseIncreaseIncreaseIncrease

DecreaseIncreaseIncrease

IncreaseDecreaseIncreaseIncreaseIncreaseDecreaseIncreaseDecreaseIncreaseIncreaseIncrease

DecreaseIncreaseIncreaseIncreaseIncrease

84

Table1.(continued)

1970

PhilippinesPolandPortugalPuertoRicoRomania

RussianFederationSingaporeSloveniaSpainSwedenSwitzerlandThailand

Trinidad&TobagoUrkaine

UnitedKingdomEngland&WalesNorthernIrelandScotlandUSAUSSR

ByelorussiaUruguayVenezuelaYugoslavia

1.604.703.502.82––1.49–2.862.372.711.47–––1.441.471.582.574.36–2.732.37–

1990–4.893.009.242.833.951.283.462.732.322.48–2.833.983.323.272.773.654.253.784.313.95–2.35

IncreaseDecreaseIncrease

DecreaseDecreaseDecreaseDecrease

IncreaseIncreaseIncreaseIncreaseDecreaseIncrease

Explanationsforthegenderdifference

OnepossibilityforthegenderdifferenceinChinesesuicideratesmaylieintheimbalanceinthegenderratiosinthegeneralpopulation.Perhapstherelativenumbersofmenandwomeninthegeneralpopulationareassociatedwiththerelativesuicideratesofmenandwomen.In1989,whenthesuiciderateforwomenwas19.6per100,000peryearandtherateformenwas14.7,thiswasforaregionofChinawheretherewere60.9millionmenand57.9millionwomen,anexcessofmenoverwomenandagenderratioof1.05.(IntheUnitedStatesaftertheSecondWorldWar,therehasbeenanexcessofwomenovermen,dippingaslowas0.95(Guttentag&Secord,1983).)

GuttentagandSecordhypothesizedthatanoversupplyofmen,asintheChineseregionsforwhichsuicideratesarepresentlyreported,wouldleadtoastressoftraditionalfemaleroles(aswivesandmothers),whileatthesametimegivingwomenmorepower(sincetheycanbechoosieraboutwhomthey

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Table2.Suiciderates(per100,000peryear)inChinaYear/genderAllregions198719881989

Age

Male14.91.1Female20.41.1Male15.01.0Female19.51.0Male14.70.5Female19.60.8

16.232.715.830.414.029.1

13.018.113.817.713.320.3

15.217.015.418.415.419.3

15.419.816.018.617.117.8

26.430.227.726.527.425.6

54.150.649.944.352.543.4

79.173.790.171.093.369.0

Urbanregions1987Male8.70.8

Female11.40.719881989

Male8.00.6Female10.00.6Male8.30.3Female10.50.6

7.615.07.312.96.512.5

7.49.67.48.47.710.2

9.08.77.29.59.19.9

9.311.38.510.18.79.8

14.117.913.112.613.414.2

30.433.627.725.430.226.7

55.554.356.751.859.747.4

Ruralregions198719881989

Male23.21.4Female32.31.4Male23.11.3Female30.31.2Male23.10.6Female31.50.9

27.354.925.047.823.147.7

22.231.323.231.322.937.1

24.730.325.229.024.633.2

26.035.626.430.930.230.7

46.647.848.747.650.243.5

87.470.576.966.085.466.2

108.996.9127.091.3141.297.5

acceptasahusband).GuttentagandSecordhypothesizedthatwomencouldmarrymenhigherinsocialclass,andtheywouldnotstriveforpersonalorpoliticalrights,norexperienceunhappinessordespair.

LookingattheratioofmentowomeninthepopulationonwhichtheChinesesuiciderateswerebasedin1989(Table4),we?ndthatthegenderratioforthesuicideratebyageisstronglynegativelyassociatedwiththegenderratioforthepopulation(Spearmanrho=0.88,two-tailedp<0.02).Thus,arelativepaucityofmalesinanagegroupinthegeneralpopulationisassociatedwitharelativelyhighersuiciderateinmales.ThisisinlinewiththepredictionmadebyGuttentagandSecord.

However,Chinainrecenttimeshasbeenundergoingdramaticchangeasthesocietymovesfromstrictcommunismtorestrainedcapitalism.Thus,

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Table3.Genderratios(malesuiciderate/femalesuiciderateYearAllregions198719881989Urbanregions198719881989Ruralregions198719881989

Age0.730.770.75

1.001.000.62

0.500.520.48

0.720.780.66

0.890.840.80

100)

0.871.051.07

1.071.131.21

1.071.271.35

0.780.860.96

0.760.800.791.141.000.500.510.570.520.770.880.751.030.760.920.820.840.890.791.040.940.901.091.131.021.091.26

0.720.760.731.001.080.670.500.520.480.710.740.620.820.870.740.730.850.980.971.021.151.241.171.291.121.391.45

Table4.Genderratios,1989(male/female)

AgeSuiciderate

NumberofsuicidesPopulation

0.620.651.079

0.480.571.068

0.660.811.064

0.800.991.075

0.960.921.054

1.070.991.041

1.211.060.906

1.351.000.637

theanalysisprovidedbyGuttentagandSecordmaynotapplytomodernChinawherewomenperhapshaveaspirationstochooserolesotherthanthetraditionalones.Itwouldbeinterestingtogatherdatafurtherontheseissues,suchasthegenderratiofordifferentagegroupsofthepopulationandforthoseofdifferentmaritalstatus,aswellasonthepastandpresentaspirationsofwomen(andmen)inChina.[Easterlin(1987)hasalsostressedtheimportanceoftherelativesizeofdifferentagegroupsinthepopulationindeterminingdeviantbehaviorssuchassuicideandhomicide,andsofuturestudiesinChinashouldalsotakeintoaccounttheimpactofcohortsize.]Otherexplanationsforthegenderdifferenceinsuicideratesarepossible,butlackconvincingevidence.Forexample,divorceisrareinChina,andsocannotaccountforthelargegenderdifference.Theageat?rstmarriage(whichmayleadtofatalisticsuicideaccordingtoDurkheim’s(1897)sociologicaltheoryofsuicide)isnowintherangeof22to24yearsofage(NationalStatisticsBureau,1988),toolatetoaffectthegenderratioinsuicideratesfor

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Table5.PrecipitatingcausesofsuicideinChuanzhouCounty,1981

Familycon?ict

Males,15–24Females,15–24Males,25–34Females,25–34Males55+Females,55+

79%49%69%79%33%87%

Marriageproblems13%38%0%0%0%0%

Mentaldisease10%3%0%4%0%0%

Other8%6%0%4%33%0%

Unknown0%4%31%12%33%12%

n4368162498

thoseaged15–24.However,somefamilieslieabouttheageatmarriageinordertocoveruppeoplemarryingataveryyoungage.Thus,therearenogooddataontheproportionofmarriagesbyadolescents,andtheimportanceofearlymarriageinprecipitatingsuicidedif?culttouncover.Economicpoverty(apossiblesourceofstresswhichmayaffectmenandwomendifferently)doesnotappeartoprovideapossibleexplanationfor,inastudyofsuicidesinChuanzhouCountyintheGuangxiregionbytheseniorauthor,themajorityofsuicidesdidnotcomefromthepoorestfamilies.Althoughmandatoryfamilyplanningmaycausestressforfamilies,noneofthe194femalesuicidesinChuanzhouCountyin1989werejudgedtobeprecipitatedbyfamilyplanningstress.

ThemajorprecipitantofsuicideinyoungChinesefemalesappearstobefamilycon?icts,primarilyhusband-wife,butalsofather-daughter,mother-daughter,andeldersister-youngersisterinorderoffrequency.Problemsbetweenparentsandoldersons/daughterswerenotcommonprecipitantsofsuicidesince,aftertheagriculturalreformsof1981,assoonascouplesmarried,theyquicklyseparatedfromtheirparents’familiesandlivedontheirown.

TheseniorauthorhasstudiedsuicideinChuanzhouCountyingreaterdetail.ChuanzhouCountyisaricherthanaveragecountyinGuangxiwithapopulationin1981of0.66millionandasuiciderateof47.2.Thegenderratiowas0.40.Therewere77malesuicidesand194femalesuicides,with41%ofthesuicidesbeingbetweentheagesof15and24.ThemotivesforthesuicidesareshowninTable5whereitcanbeseenthat,fortheadolescentsandyoungadults,familycon?ictwasthemostcommonprecipitatingcause.Atypicalsuicidenoteillustratingfamilycon?ictisthefollowingextractfromasuicidenotewrittenbya17-year-oldteenagerwhodrownedherself:

Ifeltnowarmthinourfamily.Iwasdiscriminatedagainstandcon-demnedbymyparentsandbeatenbymyelderbrotherandsister.HowcanIforgetthis?Iamanadultnowandnotachildanymore.Ihavedignity

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I’macoward.Didn’tIknowhowtoresist?NoYes,I’mdepressed,worriedandfullofsorrow.ButhowcanIlaughwhenIamattackedandscoldedbymyfamilyifthingsdon’tgoastheywant?ThatisthereasonIdon’tcomehometohavelunch.Iwouldratherbehungrythanstayathomeevenforoneminute(Zhang,1987,pp.153–155).

Overall,69%ofthe194femalesuicidesinChuanzhouCountywerecausedbyfamilycon?icts(includingmarriagereverse).Husband-wifecon?ictandmother-daughtercon?ictwerethemostcommonsourcesoffamilycon?ictforthesewomen.Marriageproblemsincludearrangedmarriages,parentsdisapprovingofthemarriage(especiallybecausethecouplewouldmovefaraway),anddivorce,actualoranticipated–however,thesemarriageproblemsweretheprecipitatingcauseforonly7%ofthefemalesuicides.Thus,thegapbetweenrealitiesandaspirationsinChinesewomen(relativetoalessergapinmen)maybeapromisingexplanationofthelowgendersuicideratio.Atypicalsuicidenoteillustratingmaritalproblemsisthefollowingwrittenbya19-year-oldteenagerwhotookpoison:

Underthein?uenceofhissweetandhoneyedwords,Iofferedhimmymostprecioustreasure,myvirginity.Buthehasgotanewlovernow.I’msoupsetthatIwanttodestroyhim.ButIhaveastrongneedtobedigni?ed.Peopledon’tknowaboutourprivatematters.IfIdestroyhim,undoubtedlyIwillrevealthesituationtothecommunity.Therefore,Iwillkillmyself.Iwanttoperishwithhim.Whatislostislostforever.Myheartfeelsasifithasbeenstabbedbyaknife(Zhang,1987,pp.164–165).Zhaoetal.(1994)suggestedthatwomeninChina,especiallyinruralareas,oftenaremarriedforreasonsotherthanloveorattraction,resultinginpoorqualitybutstablemarriagerelationships.Buddhistbeliefsarecommon,encouragingthewomentobelieveinreincarnationandliberationafterdeath.Recentreformshaveledwomentoincreasetheiraspirationsformaterialandsocialstatus,buttheyremainlesseducatedthanmenandstilllimitedintheiropportunities.

TherelativelyhighsuiciderateinChinesewomen,especiallyamongyoungadults,maybeoneresultoftheincreasingfemaleautonomy.Chinesewomenhaveexperiencedanincreaseinpolitical,economicandsocialfreedom,andthismayhaveproducedstressastheystruggletoadjusttothesechanges.Aspirationsmayhavebeendif?culttorealize.Otherwomenmayhavepreferredtheformersystemwhichallowedthemtobemoredependent.Clearly,amorecompleteexplanationforthereasonswhythefemalesuiciderateinChinaishigherthanthemalesuicideratemustawaitmoredetailedpsychologicalautopsystudiesofsamplesofChinesesuicides.

89

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