Chapter 3 Varieties of Language

语言变体(varieties of language)可分为两类：一类是方言变体(dialectal varieties), 俗称方言；另一类是话语类变体(diatypic varieties), 亦称语域（register）。方言是以语言的使用者（users）为基准而区分的语言变体；语域则是按照语言使用者对语言的使用（uses）而区分的语言变体。因此，方言多与交际者的社会阶层、社会地位、地域、年龄、性别及所处的时代等因素有关，比较稳定；语域则多与交际者所从事的社会活动密切相关。

方言(Dialect):

1) 语言使用者的个人特征（individuality）--Idiolect

(语言的流利度、清晰度、表达能力大小等。例：Mr X’s English, Mr Y’s English。)

2) 时代特征（temporal features）--Temporal Dialect

3) 地域特征（geographical feature）--Regional Dialect

4) 社会特征（social features）--Social Dialect

Socioeconomic status varieties 社会经济变体

Ethnic varieties 种族变体

Gender varieties 性别变体

Age varieties 年龄变体

5) 可理解的程度和范围—Standard Dialect

? 方言(Dialects)具有社会指示功能，方言不仅能体现人物的地域特征，而且能反映出人物

的社会地位、文化程度乃至个人性格，这一点在文学作品中最为明显

语域(Register)

1) Field of Discourse(话语范围/语场)

Non-technical fields of discourse

Technical fields of discourse

2) Mode of Discourse(话语方式/语式)

Speech: conversing, monologuing

Writing: texts written to be spoken as if not written/ written to be read

3) Tenor of Discourse(话语基调/语基)

Personal Tenor(个人基调)

Functional Tenor(功能基调)

1) Field of Discourse(话语范围/语场)

话语范围指的是言语交际过程中发生的事情，进行的活动，论及的事情或表达的经验等，它能体现语言使用者在特定情境语境中所要实现的交际目的和作用。

话语范围是语言概念(interpersonal)功能的体现。

话语范围不同于话题（topic）或主题，一个话语范围可有多个话题。话题或主题是体现话语范围的事例。（related topic in phatic communion: weather, health, news etc.）

话语范围主要有专业话语范围和非专业话语范围两大类。

Example:

A: Hi, how are things?

B: Not so bad, and you?

A: Could be worse.

B: Hear the Budget?

A: Wish I hadn’t.

B: (laugh) Never mind, it’s going to be a good weekend.

A: It had better be.

(They continue on their way.)

2) Mode of Discourse(话语方式/语式)

话语方式指言语交际的媒介或渠道，人们常把媒介简单分为―讲话‖（speaking）和―写作‖（writing）两种方式。

讲话和写作之间的区别不是绝对的。（P102）

3) Tenor of Discourse(话语基调/语基)

话语基调指的是交际情境中讲话者与受话者之间的关系（relationship）和讲话者的交际意图（intention）,主要分为个人基调（personal tenor）和功能基调（functional tenor）。

个人基调表达交际双方存在的关系。人们之间关系的亲密或正式程度与语言表达的清晰度成反比。

功能基调反映语言在特定情景中所能实现的交际意图。功能基调主要分为寒暄性的(phatic)，说明性的(expository)，说服性的(persuasive)和说教性(didactic)的等几大类。

三者之间的关系：

功能基调能够影响语篇类型的结构。（广告）

个人基调和功能基调可以相互独立。（大学讲课）

个人基调和功能基调可以同时在语言交际过程中起作用，二者没有固定关系（母女谈话） 话语方式和话语范围密切相关。专业的话语范围往往用书面语方式，反之用口语方式。 话语方式与话语基调密切相关。正式的个人基调往往用书面语方式，非正式个人基调则用口头方式。

Example:

Dear Sir,

I must apologize for the delay in replying to your letter of the 30th of December…

Dear Jane,

I’m terribly sorry not to have got round to writing before now…

总结：

语场、语式和语基不是语域的组成部分，而是决定语域的三个情景变项。在情境语境的三个变项中，任何一个变项发生了变化，都会引起语域的变化。

Exercise: Several ways of asking about the time are listed below. Please identify the addresser-addressee relationship and the possible occasion on which each of them is used.

(1) Excuse me, could you tell me the right time, please?

(2) What time is it, please?

(3) What’s the time?

(4) Time?

(5) How much longer have we got?

(6) My watch seems to have stopped …

Chapter 4 Linguistic Description

Question:

What are the procedures of literary criticism?

The procedures of stylistic analysis:

Description(描述)

Interpretation(阐释)

Evaluation (评价)

Description-Explanation-Evaluation

语言描写是基础。

对任何语言的语体或文体的研究都是围绕语言运用的表达效果和交际效果这一总目标进行的。因此，文体和语体分析（stylistic analysis）是建立在语言描写基础之上的。 What are the aims of stylistics in linguistic description?

Stylistics aims at providing a methodology of analysis – a clear technique of description which, ideally, will allow any persons to cope with any text they want to study, a procedure that can ensure that no items of stylistic significance is overlooked.

It replaces a sporadic approach with a systematic one and seeks to avoid over-reliance on intuitive ability in stylistic analysis.

语言描写是前提，不依赖语言描写而凭个人对语言的直觉来阐释文本，容易导致印象主义的文学批评。语言描写是文体分析的一种手段，它有助于我们阐释文本，但不是目的。文体分析的目的在于说明作品为什么和怎么样才获得其特定的意义；它既要包括语言描写和语言分析，也要包括阐释活动。

Stylistic Features

Definition: (P.44)

能够在特定语境中体现特定文体功能的语言特征统称为文体标志（stylistic markers）或文体特征（stylistic features）

Stylistic features at three levels: (P.44-67)

1) phonology and graphology

2) lexis and grammar

3) semantics

Stylistic features at three levels

Ⅰ. Stylistic features at the first level

A. Phonological features

1. Segmental features

onomatopoeia, sound symbolism, assimilation, repetition of sounds (alliteration, assonance, consonance, rhyme)

Examples:

1. Men may meet but mountains never. (alliteration)

2. Want of wit is worse than want of wealth. (alliteration)

3. Speaking without thinking is shooting without aiming. (consonance)

4. The door creaked open. (onomatopoeia)

5. He wined and dined with the leading citizens of each country during his tour of Europe. (rhyme)

2. Supra-segmental features

stress

Rhythm

Intonation

Pause

tempo

B. Graphological features

Alphabet, the number system, punctuation, capitalization, heading, italicizing, bracketing,

diagramming, paragraphing, spacing, etc.

Ⅱ. Stylistic features at the second level

A. Grammatical features

Sentence type

Clause type

Group type

Word type

B. Lexical features

General wording inclination

Connotative meaning内涵意义

Collocation词语搭配

Ⅲ. Stylistic features at the third level

Text as a semantic unit语义单元

Cohesion

Paragraphing

Discourse pattern

Rhetorical devices

Semantic roles

Procedures of Stylistic Description

Supplementary Materials for Linguistic Description

Level 2: Lexical and grammatical features

Lexical features:

denotation and connotation

Denotation字面义 is the specific, direct, and literal meaning of a word. Connotation隐含义 is the associative or suggestive meaning of a word.

e.g. maxim格言, epigram警句, proverb谚语, saying, motto座右铭

proverb: a saying from the Bible.

Saw彦: the kind of wisdom handed down to us anonymously

epigram: a witty statement

motto: a favorite saying of a sect or political group

Maxim: a saying that is widely accepted on its own merit.

General words and specific words

e.g.

tree – oak, elm, poplar

ship – liner, brig, bark, tanker, cargo steamer

Abstract words and concrete words

e.g.

concrete words: peach, pear, apple, apricot

abstract words: sweetness, fuzziness, softness

Short words and long words

long (formal) words: satisfied, obtained, concealment, removed, justified, returnability, deportation, exclusion, conductive

short (informal) words: happy, got, hiding, got rid of, shown to be right, return, sending away, forced leaving, leading

Exercise:

Agitators搅拌器，挑拨者, activists积极活跃分子, supporters支持者

1,Antiapartheid反种族隔离的 ( ) built a symbolic shanty on the green to protest the university’s refusal to sell its investments in companies doing business in South Africa.

2，Left-wing ( ) threw up an eyesore眼中钉 right on the green to try to stampede惊跑 the university into politicizing its investment policy.

3，( ) of human rights in South Africa challenged the university’s investment in racism种族主义 by erecting a protest shanty on campus.

Grammatical features:

(1) Simple, Compound, Complex and Compound-complex Sentences

A simple sentence consists of one independent clause and express a complete thought. The subject or the predicate, or both, may be compound.

e.g. She explained the location of the house to me.

A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses joined by a co-ordinating conjunction (and, but, nor, or, so, yet) or by a semicolon without a conjunction. Each independent clause must have its own subject and verb.

e.g. It had been a long day, so we were very tired.

A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses and expresses a complete thought. The dependent clause is joined by a subordinating conjunction. e.g. I complimented Joe when he finished the job.

A compound-complex sentence consists of at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause and expresses a complete thought.

e.g. Sister Lucy tried her best to help Martin, but he was an undisciplined boy who drove many teachers to despair.

Examples:

Both my roommate and I had left our keys in the room.

Those who do not like to get dirty should not go camping.

Sister Lucy tried her best to help Martin, but he was an undisciplined boy who drove many teachers to despair.

It is nearly half past five, and we cannot reach town before dark.

At the country club, the head and his assistant give lessons, run the golf shop, and try to keep the members content.

Although the situation is perilous, there is still one chance of escape.

(2) Declarative陈述, interrogative疑问, imperative祈使 and exclamatory sentence感叹句

(3) Loose and periodical sentences

A loose sentence松散句 is a basic statement with a string of details added to it.

e.g. She sang the National Anthem, holding the sheet music in her hand in case she forgot the words.

A periodic sentence掉尾句 is a sentence in which the subordinate idea comes first and the main idea comes last. The periodic sentence is especially useful for creating tension or building toward a climactic or surprise ending.

e.g. We are choosing the assistant manager from among several applicants since they have strong qualifications in accounting as well as being trained in customer service.

Wondering what to say, nervously rubbing his nose, he stood silently for a moment.

He served the stew with embarrassment, knowing that several of his guests were excellent cooks who were to polite to complain.

Despite the fact that the vast majority of the Indians were friendly, the Spanish invaders murdered or raped many of the Indians they met.

Built at a cost of 16 million dollars, with a mile-long center span and supported at either end by stone towers that were once the tallest buildings in the country, the Brooklyn Bridge celebrated its centenary in 1983.