微观经济学重点

微观经济学考试重点

一、名词解释(24分)

1、消费者剩余(consumer surplus)

消费者剩余是一种物品的总效用与其市场价值之间的差额,它衡量的是消费者从某一物品的购买中所得到的超过他们为之支付的那部分额外效用。

2、无差异曲线(indifference curve)

         无差异曲线是用来表示消费者在一定的偏好、一定的技术和一定资源条件下选择商品时,从两种商品的不同数量组合中,获得相同的满足程度的曲线。

3、预算线(budget line)

         预算线是指在消费者收入和商品价格既定的情况下,消费者的全部收入所能购买到的两种商品不同数量的各种组合。

4、边际产量(marginal product)

         一种投入的边际产量是指在其他投入保持不变的情况下,由于增加1单位的该投入而多生产出来的产量或产出。

5、报酬递减规律(law of diminishing returns)

         报酬递减规律是指在其他投入保持不变的情况下,随着某一投入量的增加,所获得的产出增量越来越少。

6、规模报酬不变、递增和递减(constant, increasing and decreasing returns to scale)

         规模报酬不变、递增和递减是指所有的要素按相同比例增加时,产出相同比例、更大比例或更少比例增加的现象。

7、最低成本原则(least-cost rule)

         要以最低的成本生产既定的产量,厂商应当购买各种投入(例如劳动力和资本)直到花在每一种投入上的每一美元的边际产量相等。

8、需求的价格弹性(price elasticity of demand)

         需求的价格弹性指的是需求量对价格变动反应程度的指标。弹性系数等于需求量变动百分比除以价格变动的百分比。

9、生产函数(the production function)

         生产函数是指在既定的工程、技术和知识条件下,一定量的要素投入与所能生产的最大产量间的函数关系。

10、完全竞争市场(perfectly competitive markets)

         完全竞争市场是指竞争充分而不受任何阻碍和干扰的一种市场结构。在完全竞争市场,买卖人数众多,买者和卖者是价格的接受者,资源可自由流动,产品同质,买卖双方拥有完全的信息。

【注:此为完全竞争市场的相关笔记,但貌似是完全竞争市场的市场行为而非定义,更为重要的……这东西不全不科学】在完全竞争市场中,有无数个小规模的企业,每个企业都生产同质化的商品,所以每个企业都无法影响市场价格,并面对一条完全水平的需求曲线。

11、经济租金(economic rent)

         当某种固定要素(如土地)的供给量不受价格影响时,对于该要素的支付称为租金或经济租金。

12、效用(utility)

         【强哥语录】消费者消费商品所获得的满足感或消费者对不同的消费品组合按效用水平的高低进行排序。效用是用来反映消费者偏好的一个工具。

         【百度百科/维基百科】一般而言,效用是指对于消费者通过消费或者享受闲暇等使自己的需求、欲望等得到的满足的一个度量。

13、边际效用递减规律(the law of diminishing marginal utility)

         在一定时期内,在其他商品的消费数量不变的情况下,随着消费者对某种商品消费量增加,消费者从该商品连续增加的每一消费单位中所得到的总效用是递增的,而该商品所带来的边际效用是递减的。

二、简答题&分析题

1、竞争型厂商短期供给曲线(the supply curve in the short run for the competitive firms)

短期内,即使厂商不生产,也必须支付固定成本:例如银行的利息,厂商的租金和高级管理者的工资。只要总的收益扣除总的变动成本以后,还有一部分资金能弥补固定成本,就应该继续维持关于P=MC(竞争型厂商获得利润最大化)的生产。

厂商的停止经营点(M’)就在总收益恰好弥补总的变动成本或在损失恰好等于固定成本的地方。停止营业点的产出量就在MC曲线等于AVC曲线的最低点的地方。

在停止营业点M’上方的价格水平,厂商会沿着边际成本曲线组织生产,因为即使厂商可能亏本,它停止生产的话会损失更多的钱。

在停止营业点M’下方的价格水平,厂商会停止生产,因为如果停止生产,它只会损失固定成本。

         由此可见,短期内,厂商的供给曲线是图表中红色曲线(MC曲线在停止营业点M’上方的部分)。

【相关笔记】

         In the short term, even though a firm produces nothing, it must pay fixed cost(FC) such as interest to the bank, rentals to the factory, and directors’ salaries. It will be advantageous to continue operations with P=MC(a competitive firm receives maximum profit π), as long as revenue (p*q) minus variable costs covers(弥补) some part of the fixed cost.

         The shutdown point(M’) comes where revenues just over variable cost or where losses are equal to fixed cost. The shutdown level of output (QS) comes where price equals MC and equal AVC and equals also minimum AVC.

For price above the shutdown point, the firm will produce along its MC curve because even though the firm might be losing money, it would lose more by shutting down.

For prices below the shutdown point, the firm will produce nothing at all because by shutting down, the firm will lose only its fixed costs.

Therefore, in the short run, the firm supply curve is the solid red line in the figure(MC curve above the shutdown point M’).

2、丰收悖论(the paradox of the bumper harvest)

丰收悖论是指丰收反而降低了农民的收入,它的主要成因在于小麦等基本粮食作物缺乏需求弹性:消费者对于粮食这类产品的价格变动反应迟钝。粮食收成好,供给增加从而降低价格,但粮食价格降低并不会刺激需求有较大增加。于是,收成好反而使全体农民的总收益下降。

【相关笔记】

The paradox of the bumper harvest denotes the bumper crop has lowered farmer’s incomes. The reason is that the demand of food is inelastic(缺乏弹性), so large harvest tend to be associated with low revenue.

3、影响需求和供给的因素(factors affecting the demand & supply curve)

影响需求的因素

(1)消费者平均收入水平 (2)人口规模 (3)相关商品价格:①代替品②互补品

(4)消费者偏好 (5)特殊的影响因素

【相关笔记】

Factors affecting the demand curve

(1)average income (2)population (3)prices of related goods(substitutes, complements)

(4)tastes or preference (5)special influences

影响供给的因素

(1)产品成本:①投入品价格②技术进步  (2)相关商品价格(3)政府政策

(4)特殊的影响因素

【相关笔记】

Factors affecting the supply curve

(1)the cost of production: ①the price of input ②technological advance

(2)price of related goods (3)government policy (4)special influences

4、赋税归宿(the incidence of tax)

(1)税收对供需的影响:

①税收对需求没有影响。

②增加税收之后供给曲线向上移动T个单位。

(2)赋税归属的运算

①转嫁给消费者的税收是: PE’-PE

②转嫁给生产者的税收是: PE-PS

(3)一般地,征税后市场均衡价格上升,均衡数量下降,消费者支付的均衡价格上升,厂商获利的均衡价格下降。

(4)赋税转嫁后的一般规律:一般地,赋税归宿取决于需求和供给者的相对弹性。如果需求相对于供给缺乏弹性,则税收向前转嫁给消费者;如果供给相对于需求缺乏弹性,则税收向后转嫁给厂商。

【注】一般来说,供给曲线越陡峭,供给相对缺乏弹性,生产者将承担大部分税收;供给曲线越直,供给相对富有弹性,消费者将承担大部分税收。

         需求曲线越陡峭,需求相对缺乏弹性,消费者承担的税收越多;需求曲线越平坦,需求相对富有弹性,生产者承担的税收越多。

【相关笔记】

(1)Impact of a tax on demand and supply:

①A tax has no impact on demand.

②The supply curve shift upward T after raising a tax(the supply decreases)

(2)Calculating the incidence of a tax:

①tax shifting to consumers: PE’-PE

②tax shifting to consumers: PE-PS

(3)Impact of a tax on quantity and price:

In general, the quantity decrease(QE→QE’); The price consumers pay off increases(PE→PE’);The net price producers receive decreases(PE→PE’)

(4)General rule on tax shifting:

Generally, the incidence of a tax depends upon the relative elasticity of demand and supply. A tax is shifted to forwards to consumers if the demand is inelastic relative to supply; A tax is shifted backward to producers of supply is relatively more inelastic than demand.

5、边际成本(marginal cost)及U型的边际成本曲线(U-shaped marginal cost curve)

边际成本指的的是生产额外一单位产品所需增加的成本。从定义出发,我们可以发现,边际成本等于总成本曲线或变动成本曲线上的点的斜率。

         一条U型曲线是由先递增后递减的边际产量(即报酬递减规律)决定的。在短期内,当诸如资本这样的因素固定不变时,可变要素诸如劳动会表现出最初报酬递增,然后报酬递减的现象。与之相对应的成本曲线则会在报酬递减的介入下,表现出边际成本最初递减,然后递增的现象。

【相关笔记】

Marginal cost(MC) denotes the extra cost of producing one extra unit of output. By definition, there is MC(Q)=TC’(Q)=VC’(Q). So marginal cost equals the slope of the total cost curve or the variable cost curve.

A U-shaped marginal cost curve derives from increasing and then diminishing marginal product to the variable factor(the law of diminishing returns): in the short run, when factors such as capital are fixed, variable factors such as labor tend to show are initial phase of increasing returns followed by diminishing returns. The corresponding cost curves show an initial phase of declining marginal costs followed by increasing marginal costs after diminishing returns have set in.

【补充】

  某产量水平上的边际成本等于总成本曲线上该点的斜率。由于总成本曲线的斜率一般是由大变小,又由小变大,所以边际成本曲线也呈U形,其最低点处于总成本曲线上的拐点,因为拐点的斜率最小,由于边际成本说明因单位的产量变化而引起的总成本的变化,所以它只与总变动成本有关,而与总固定成本的大小无关,当边际成本小于平均总成本时,平均总成本呈下降趋势;当边际成本大于平均总成本时,平均总成本呈上升趋势;当边际成本等于平均总成本时,平均总成本处于最低点,也就是说,平均总成本曲线与边际成本曲线相交于平均总成本曲线的最低点。

短期边际成本取决于可变成本,因为所增加的成本只是可变成本,它的变动规律是,边际成本随产量的增加而减少,当产量增加到一定程度时,就随产量的增加而增加。

6、价值悖论(the paradox of value)

         价值悖论是这么一种现象,水是生命所必须的,但它的价格很低,而钻石,一般用作装饰物,它的价值又那么高?

         一般地,我们假设收入中的每一美元带来的边际效用不变,因此,根据等边际原则(MUF/PF= MUc /PC) ,我们从公式MU/P=Kcontant可以推导出P=MU/K,这表明水的价格并不是取决于水的总效用而是边际效用。因为有着大量的水,使得水的边际效用大大地降低,从而大大降低水的价值(价格)。

【相关笔记】

The paradox of value: how is it that water, which is essential to life, has little value (price), while diamonds, which are generally used for conspicuous consumption, command an exalted value?

In general, we hold the marginal utility per dollar of income constant. Therefore, according to the equi-marginal principle (MUF/PF=MUC/PC) we can derive “P=MU/K” from “MU/P=Kcontant”. It indicates that water’s price is not determined by its total utility but determined by its marginal utility. Because there is so much water, the large quantity pulls the marginal utility so far down and thus reduces its value (price).

7、价格上限(maximum ceilings)

         当政府制定一个最高上限价格(PE’),商品的均衡价格就会上升,供应量无法满足需求量,商品的短缺就会出现,它不得不通过使人们排队购买来解决,所以制定最高上限价格会导致人们浪费大量宝贵的时间去满足他们的需求。

【相关笔记】

When the government legislates a maximum price ceiling(PE’), the shortage occurs(QE→QA), and is often managed by making people wait in line, so there is great waste as people spend valuable time trying to secure their need.

8、劳动供给曲线为什么向后弯曲?(Backward-bending supply curve for labor)

         劳动代替效应:随着劳动市场价格的上升,人们会相应地减少闲暇的消费,因此,劳动供给量就增加了。

         劳动收入效应:随着劳动价格的上升,人们的收入也增加了。因此,人们会增加闲暇的消费,所以劳动的供给量下降了。

         最初,随着实际工资的增加,劳动的代替效应超过劳动的收入效应,因此,劳动的供给量增加;但是一旦超过T点,劳动的收入效应就超过劳动的替代效应,因此劳动供给量减少。

【相关笔记】

         Substitution effect of labor: when the price of labor(wage) increases, people will decrease the consumption of leisure, so the labor supplied will increase.

         Income effect of labor: when the price of labor increases, people’s incomes also increase. Thus, people will increase the consumption of leisure, so the labor supplied will decrease.

         At first (W<W*), as real wage increases, the substitution effect of labor is larger than the income effect of labor, so the labor supplied will increase. But beyond point T  (W>W*), the income effect of labor is larger than the substitution effect of labor, so the labor supplied will decrease.

9、需求曲线为什么一般向下方倾斜?(Why does demand curve slope downward?)

         一般地,我们假定收入的每一美元带来的边际效用不变。因此,根据等边际原则,某种商品价格上升,会减少消费者对该商品的消费,这就证明了为什么需求曲线向下倾斜。(等边际原则是指导我们消费的基本原则)

【相关笔记】

In general, we hold that the marginal utility per dollar of income constant. Therefore, according to the equimarginal principle, a higher price for a good reduces the consumer’s desired consumption of that commodity. This shows why demand curve slope downward.

10、完全竞争行业或市场的长期均衡(the long-run equilibrium for a competitive industry)

         当一个行业中的竞争型企业有同样的成本曲线,并能自由进出时,长期均衡的条件就是价格等于边际成本等于最低的长期平均成本(即在点E取得零利润点)。原因在于当市场均衡价格低于零利润点时,部分厂商会退出行业直到价格恢复到长期平均成本;当市场均衡价格高于零利润点时,新的厂商会进入行业,供给增加,迫使均衡价格恢复到长期平均价格,由此所有的竞争型成本都得到弥补。

【相关笔记】

         When an industry is supplied by competitive firms with identical cost curves and when firms can enter and leave the industry freely, the long-run equilibrium condition is that price equals marginal cost equals the minimum long-average cost for each identical firm (at the point E). The reason is that, when price in the industry is below the zero-profit price (P1<P*), firms would leave the industry until price returns to long-run average cost; when the price in the industry is above the zero-profit price (P2>P*), new firms would enter the industry, thereby forcing market price back down to the long-run equilibrium price(P*) where all competitive costs are just covered.

11、最低下限(minimum floors)

(1)政府制定最低下限工资W,就业由QE减少到QM,同时失业由0增加到QN-QM

(2)失业增加的程度和就业减少的程度取决于我们的经验证据

(3)最低下限工资对收入的影响取决于劳动的需求价格弹性:

①如果劳动的需求量缺乏弹性,政府提高最低工资会增加工人的收入。

②如果劳动的需求量富有弹性,政府提高最低工资反而会减少工人的收入。

③如果劳动的需求量是单位弹性,政府提高最低工资不会影响工人的收入。

【相关笔记】

(1)Setting the minimum-wage floor at W, employment is reduced(QE→QM) and unemployment increase (0→QN-QM).

(2)The magnitudes of the rise in unemployment and the decrease in employment depend upon our empirical evidence.

(3)Impact of minimum-wage floor an incomes depends upon the price elasticity of demand for labor.

①If the demand is inelastic increasing, the minimum wage will increase the income of workers.

②If the demand is elastic increasing, the minimum wage will decrease the income

③If the demand is unit-elastic increasing, the minimum wage will have no impact on the income

12、需求的变化和需求量的变化有何区别?

在其他条件不变时,某商量价格上升,需求量下降,需求不变。价格只影响需求量不影响需求。

需求量的增加仅仅是由价格下降引起的,与其他因素无关。它表现在价格变化后,需求量在同一曲线上移动到不同的点。

需求的变化与价格无关。它表现为需求曲线的移动。

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