【活动策划】
学生党员文明宿舍评比活动策划书
一、活动背景
20xx年3月召开了全国人民代表大会和全国政协会议。作为新一代的大学生党员和入党积极分子,我们肩负着更重要的历史使命,有责任也有义务提高自身的政治素质,与时俱进,时刻与党中央保持一致,为国家做出更大的贡献。
为了积极配合学校开展的党员带头活动,保证同学们安全文明卫生的生活环境、保持党员先进性,发挥领导带头作用。本次评比的重点在学习、卫生、安全方面。
二、活动主题
党员模范、文明宿舍
三、活动时间、地点
时间:20xx年4月2日-4月29日;
地点:外文学院2012级研究生语言学党支部党员学生寝室
四、活动对象
2012级研究生语言学党支部党员学生
五、活动目的
更好地体现党员宿舍的带头模范作用;同时,也让更多的同学像党员同学学习,从而调动同学们的积极性,养成良好的学习和卫生习惯。营造良好健康的学习生活环境,从宿舍卫生、宿舍成员遵守校纪情况、学习风气、平时表现等方面来对比,来提高当代大学生党员的综合素质。
六、活动安排
1、人员安排:学习方面由党支部书记徐银红负责,宿舍成员遵守校纪方面由宣传委员傅青青负责,学习风气方面由组织委员马娜负责,平时表现方面由王桂云负责。
2、每次寝室综合评比后,总结检查结果,按照分数评出2个优秀寝室,优秀寝室获得者我们将在支部会议上给予通报表扬,并给该寝室颁发带有“优秀党员寝室”字样的流动小红旗。若发现有违规和作弊现象,则直接取消其优秀寝室的评比资格。
3、当每次评比结束后,择日召开宿舍评比总结大会,并将那些所拍的照片上传到党支部群空间或共享里,好差对比,晓之以理,让学生党员从思想上意识到党员宿舍的带头作用的重要性,从而提高学生的学习和竞争意识,从根本上解决问题的出现。
七、活动注意的问题
公平、全面的评价每个寝室
【活动总结】
学生党员文明宿舍评比活动总结
一、活动时间
20xx年4月2日-4月29日;
二、活动地点
外文学院2012级研究生语言学党支部党员学生寝室
三、主办单位
外文学院2012级研究生语言学党支部
四、前期准备
准备带有“优秀党员宿舍”字样的流动小红旗,事先开会部署工作
五、活动过程
学习方面由党支部书记徐银红负责,宿舍成员遵守校纪方面由宣传委员傅青青负责,学习风气方面由李美莲负责,平时表现方面由王桂云负责。,随后总结评比结果,按照分数评出2个优秀宿舍,优秀宿舍获得者在支部会议上给予表扬,并给该宿舍颁发带有“优秀党员宿舍”字样的流动小红旗。
评比结束后,召开了宿舍评比的总结大会,并将所拍照片上传到党支部群空间或共享里,好差对比并提醒大家不足之处,向优秀党员宿舍学习。
六、活动意义
通过党员宿舍评比这种方式敦促学生党员形成自律习惯,养成良好的生活学习习惯,并且有助于学生党员在生活中发挥党员的先锋模范带头作用,先进体现到生活学习的各个方面,有助于整个学院良好精神风貌的养成,提高了党支部在同学中的影响力,也有力的配合了学校开展的创先争优活动。
七、问题和教训
在评比党员宿舍时有部分同学不配合,觉得不公平,下次活动时应注意提前做好通知和解释;增加评比的透明度,尽可能的取得大家的满意。
【活动新闻】
学生党员文明宿舍评比活动
为积极响应外文学院深入开展创先争优活动的号召,充分发挥学生党组织在宿舍文化建设方面的引领作用,20xx年4月份开始,外文学院2012级研究生语言学党支部对党员学生寝室开展了文明宿舍评比活动。
评比中发现中发现,外文学院2012级研究生语言学党支部的学生党员宿舍大多学习氛围浓厚,宿舍成员准时参加各种活动,准时上课放学,严格遵守学校的各种纪律。有的还将宿舍温馨地装饰一新,和宿舍同学一起创造了一个温馨、和谐,
积极向上的宿舍环境。不少党员宿舍都合理地对宿舍卫生打扫进行了人员分配,排出值日表,做到大家分工明确、职责清晰。此次文明宿舍评比共评比出2个优秀寝室,其中女生两个宿舍分获“最佳学习宿舍”和“最佳温馨宿舍”称号。
此次党员文明宿舍评比活动对学生党员起到了监督促进的作用,促使学生党员在日后的学习生活中处处争先,争当宿舍里的“服务标兵”和学习上的带头人。而且评比结果显示,学生党员在宿舍学习生活方面确实尽到了应有的责任和义务,起到了带头模范作用。
(来自中国矿业大学外文学院新闻)
【活动策划】
“与时俱进 关注时事”
——学习新党章研讨会策划
一、活动主题
“与时俱进 关注时事”—— 外文学院2012级研究生语言学党支部
研讨会
二、活动目的
时政学习是学生党员与时俱进、时刻保持党员先进性的方法之一,通过此次学习新党章研讨会,提高党支部内部成员理论素养及理论学习水平。让同学们能一起讨论学习近期时事,一起畅谈所思所想,在支部内部形成理论学习的良好氛围。
三、活动时间
20xx年3月13日19:00
四、活动地点
党员工作站
五、参与人员
外文学院2012级研究生语言学党支部党员学生
六、活动的内容及安排
(一)前期宣传和准备:
1.查找近期的热点问题,准备好研讨议题----新党章的变化,以及如何践行新党章
2.积极做好前期宣传,如做好工作人员分配、筹备等工作。
3.报请指导老师同意,同时请求得到指导老师的指导与支持。
4.提前联系借好党员工作站作为活动场地。
5.邀请传媒中心人员进行活动全程拍照。
(二)活动流程:
1.首先由主持人徐银红介绍此次学习新党章研讨会的相关背景。
2.主持人通过一些理论讲解进行有针对性地引导,继而引出议题,与会者展开讨论;
3.讨论结束后鼓励同学们就议题积极发言。
4.新闻传媒中心人员在会上拍照。
【活动总结】
“与时俱进 关注时事”
——学习新党章研讨会总结
20xx年3月,外文学院2012级研究生语言学党支部党员学生在党员工作站就学习新党章,保持党员先进性开展了本次研讨会,内容涉及到大家关心的物价问题,反腐问题还有优秀党员的先进事例。回顾最近发生在我们身边的事,有欢喜也有忧虑,都发人深省。
我们深知开展先进性教育活动具有深远意义。树立和落实科学发展观,学习实践“三个代表”重要思想,引导广大党员学习贯彻党章,坚定理想信念,坚持党的宗旨,发扬优良传统,认真解决党员和党组织在思想、组织、作风以及工作方面存在的突出问题,不断增强党员队伍和党组织的创造力、凝聚力,最终脚踏实地的践行“中国梦”。
这次研讨会气氛热烈,到场人员积极讨论,但是前期准备工作略显不足,对党章的理解不够深刻,没有结合社会热点。通过这次研讨会,我们深刻认识到,作为一名学生党员,我们要关注民生,聚焦社会热点,做爱生活的智者,走在时代的前沿。
【活动新闻】
我院2012级研究生语言学党支部开展学习新党章研讨会 20xx年3月13日19:00我院2012级研究生语言学党支部党员学生在党员工作站召开时事研讨会,就学习新党章及一系列热点问题进行了热烈讨论。
研讨会上,2012级研究生语言学党支部党员学生从“党章概述、历届党章回顾、解读新党章、学习党章方法”四个方面入手,用生动形象的语言阐述了党章发展历史,以及如何学好新党章,并在新党章的指引下如何营造和构建和谐广场,如何提高管理学习水平以及如何加强党员学生的党性修养锻炼和优良作风养成等。通过对党章的学习,使在场的每个党员都认识到要认真学习和遵守党的章程,永葆先进性、争当合格党员,要努力把干好工作和提升自身素质,努力学习起带头作用统一起来,推动自身素质不断得到提高,要与时俱进,不断适应新形势、新情况、新工作;坚持全心全意为人民服务是我们党的宗旨,也是每一个党员所必须坚守的信念意识。
此次研讨会通过对新党章的变化与热点时事进行集体讨论,提高了大家对家事国事的关注度的同时也加强了大家的责任意识,加深了同学们对新党章的理解与学习。
(来自中国矿业大学外文学院新闻)
【活动策划】
读书研讨会策划
一、活动主题
学习型党支部建设之读书研讨
二、活动目的
为了加强学习型党支部的建设工作,同时提高大家的思想理论素质和境界,党支部特举办此次读书研讨会,以一种探讨的方式学习中国特色社会主义理论体系,以拓展大家的人文社科知识,丰富文化修养,并学会在优秀思想指导下研究新问题,解决新情况。
三、活动时间
20xx年5月20日
四、活动地点
外文学院文B305
五、活动对象
外文学院2012级研究生语言学党支部党员学生
六、主办单位
外文学院2012级研究生语言学党支部
七、活动前期准备
1、 精选出部分优秀的中国特色社会主义理论文献供大家阅读。
2、选择好读书研讨的时间和地点。
3、 积极在党支部内作好活动的动员工作,鼓励大家认真准备此次读书研讨会
4、 联系宣传委员负责拍照及后期相关事宜。
5、 精心布置会场。
八、活动内容
1、 主持人徐银红首先介绍此次读书研讨会召开的背景与目的。
2、 同学们讨论并分享自己的阅读感想与收获。
3、 主持人作总结发言。
4、 会后同学们每人提交一份读书报告。
【活动总结】
外文学院2012级研究生语言学党支部建设
之读书研讨活动总结
外文学院2012级研究生语言学党支部于20xx年5月20日,在外文学院文
B305举办了一次读书研讨会。此次活动旨在加强学习型党支部的建设工作,同时提高大家的思想理论素质和境界。此外,活动旨在以一种探讨的方式学习中国特色社会主义理论体系,以拓展大家的人文社科知识,丰富文化修养,并学会在优秀思想指导下研究新问题,解决新情况。
研讨会正式开始前,全体支部成员对于精选出的部分优秀的中国特色社会主义理论文献进行了认真阅读,积极为研讨会做好准备。读书研讨会上,在支部书记徐银红的带动下,2012级研究生语言学党支部的全体成员们踊跃发表了自己的观点,并积极分享了自己的阅读感想与收获,整个研讨会上气氛热烈。讨论结束后,主持人总结了本次研讨会的成果和收获,并鼓励大家在新时期继续不断加强对中国特色社会主义理论文献的学习,积极进取,保持党员应有的先进性。此后,同学们提交了自己的读书报告,报告中,同学们感悟颇深,有的提出了自己的新见解,有的则对文献内容表达了自己的共鸣。
通过此次研讨会支部成员们的积极参与和热烈讨论,同志们对新时期如何建设一个学习型党支部,如何不断学习中国特色社会主义理论有了新的认识,思想理论素质和境界都有了提高。相信在优秀思想的指导和感召下,同志们能更出色地解决以后的学习、生活、工作中遇到的新问题、新情况,更好地把理论融于实践,保持党员应有的先进性。
【活动新闻】
外文学院09级文学德语学习型党支部
建设之读书研讨活动顺利进行
4月6日,外文学院09级文学德语党支部全体成员在外文学院竹三党员工作站举办了以学习型党组织建设为主题的读书研讨会。本次会议由支部书记刘芳瑜同志主持,外文学院09级文学德语党支部全体成员参加了本次研讨会。 研讨会正式开始前,全体支部成员对于精选出的部分优秀的中国特色社会主义理论文献进行了认真阅读,积极为研讨会做好准备。读书研讨会上,在支部书记刘芳瑜的带动下,09级文学德语党支部的全体成员们踊跃发表了自己的观点,并积极分享了自己的阅读感想与收获,整个研讨会上气氛热烈。讨论结束后,主持人总结了本次研讨会的成果和收获,并鼓励大家在新时期继续不断加强对中国特色社会主义理论文献的学习,积极进取,保持党员应有的先进性。此后,同学们提交了自己的读书报告,报告中,同学们感悟颇深,有的提出了自己的新见解,有的则对文献内容表达了自己的共鸣。通过支部成员们的积极参与和热烈讨论,同志们对新时期如何建设一个学习型党支部,如何不断学习中国特色社会主义理论有了新的认识,思想理论素质和境界都有了提高。相信在优秀思想的指导和感召下,同志们能更出色地解决以后的学习、生活、工作中遇到的新问题、新情况,更好地把理论融于实践,保持党员应有的先进性。
此次活动加强了学习型党支部的建设工作,同时提高大家的思想理论素质和境界。此外,此次读书研讨活动以一种探讨的方式学习中国特色社会主义理论体系,以拓展大家的人文社科知识,丰富文化修养,并学会在优秀思想指导下研究新问题,解决新情况。
(来自中国矿业大学外文学院新闻)
糸壮峄盔大季
硕士学位论文
ACognitive—pragmaticAⅡalysisofContrastive
Discourse⑧Markers
对比性话语标记语的认知一镕用2析
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:i冀嚣氧
东北师范大学学位评定委自会2006年5月
摘要
话语标记语,作为一种普遍的语言现象,早在七十年代就已受到许多研究学者的青睐。尽管话语标记语的研究成果颇丰,由于对其研究的出发点或侧重点不同,使得对其本质的解释也不尽相同。但无论是从连贯理论的角度还是句法/语义一语用的角度都不能很好地为话语标记语这一对语言有制约功能的语言现象提供心理解释。而关联理沧对话语标记语却具有较强的解释力。关联理论认为,话语标记语是程序意义编码,而不是形成话语所表达的命题关系,话语标记语是寻找关联过程中的一个重要依据,即话语标记语所连接的就是话语与语境或语境假设之间的关系。
随着对话语标记语研究的不断发展和深入,研究学者发现并不是所有的话语标记语对听话人推理过程的语用制约的作用相一致。对比性话语标记语因其独特的对比性语义特征及其在话语生成和理解过程中必不可少的地位使其在话语标记语的研究领域独树一帜,引起了人们广泛关注。然而绝大多数的对比性话语标记语的研究都以分门别类为主,或是在句法或是在语义层面进行。作为对比性话语标记语的主要代表,人们发现施f几乎可以代替所有表示对比性的话语标记语来使用。除了把它看作是用法最为宽泛的对比性话语标记语,以往的研究方法并没有为此提供任何解释。
本文以关联理论为框架。试图从认知一语用的角度对对比性话语标记语进行分析和讨论。借助关联理论寻求对比性话语标记语使用的认知动因以及对比性话语标记语所编码的程序化意义。在此基础上对肋}的程序意义进行分析,旨在揭示认知语境对对比性话语标记语的理解和研究的作用以及在区别对比性话语标记语细微差别方面的功能。
本文共分五章:
第一章扼要介绍了话语标记语和对比性话语标记语及其研究价值,并简单介绍本文纲要。
第二章综合评述了话语标记语和对比性话语标记语的研究现状.在对比分析了话语标记语的研究方法后得出结论,以关联理论为框架的认知一语用方法在对比性话语标记语的解释上更具有说服力。
第三章首先简单介绍关联理论,并对明示一推理交际模式和关联原则加以论述。最后在对比传统的语境观的基础上,分析讨论了关联理论的认知语境。
第四章为本文的主体部分,关联理论为对比性话语标记语的使用提供了认知动因,并分析出对比性话语标记语是程序意义编码,而不是形成话语所表达的命题关系。这个程序化意义即否定与消除某一假设的推理过程比but的传统解释更具有说服力。同时发现对比性话语标记语幻}否定与消除的某一假设几乎可从所有的认知语境中获得,这一发现既为衄}的使用广泛性提供了认知依据,也证明了对比性话语标记语和认知语境之IV
涮的相互作用和制约为话语产生和理解提供更多信息。本章还试图用认知一语用的方法来区别but和however,nevertheless之间细微差别。
第五章在概括全文的基础上得出结论,并指出不足以及未来在话语标记语和对比性话语标记浯领域的研究前景。
关键词:对比性话语标记语;认知一语用分析:关联理论V
Abstract
SiⅡcethe1970s,imerestinDMshaSincreasedcommensurately淅thagrowinginterestin1anguageproductionaIldcornprehension.ResearchesonDMs,thou曲richandfmitful,aref缸fbmbeinghomog。neousaIldcomplete.,r11cstudjesonDMshaVebeendoneundermoret11an帆ntyoverI印pingIabels,wmchprovest11atdi彘rentresearchersholddi恐rentopinionsando丘Ierdi肫rentexplailatio且sofmenatureofDMs.nIerearet}1reemainapproachestothestudyofDMs.Comparedwi也也e铆oapproachesofcOher号nce-baseda11dgr绷atical?pra鲫撕capproach,ne曲erofwhichprOVidesapsychologicalexplanationforDMsinu_【teranceproductiOnandimerpretatiOn,t11ereleVance-basedcogI血ive—pmgmatic印pmachpr0“desamoreconviIlcinga11dpromis协g触workforexplainingmeuseofDMs.
Onmeomerhand,谢mthedeveIoDmentofresearchinthisfield,researcherscometoreaIizet11atnotallDMsmakeequalcon仃ibutionsinguiding血ehe甜er’simerpretationprocesses.ContrastiVediscol】rsemarkerS(CDMs),asasubcIassofDMs,、vi也similarmeaningofcontrastwhnebearingsubtledistinctionswhenllSed,arecomingtoⅡlecenterofDMfese甜ch.Howcver'mostof血epreviousCDMresearchesaredominatedbyclassific£址ionandtaxonomyate珧erasyIltacticorasemanticlevel.占wisfoundtObeabletooccurinahnostaIlthecon仃astiVecomems,butnOexplanationisgiVenexceptregardingitasthemostgeneralCDM.BasedonRelev姐ceTheory,thepresentstudyattemptstoexploreⅡ1enatureofCDMsf幻mtllecogIIitive—pragm撕cperSpective,especiallytlleprimaryCDM6以toseekforthecognitiVeexplanationforitSgcneralpropertywhenused.FmeHnore,Some丘ne?graineddistinctionsinmeaIlingbet、veen6甜andotherCDMsareexpectedtobec印nlred.
ThepresentdissertationconsistSof矗vcchaptersw弛也ein仃oduc矗onasChapterOne.ThemaincomentVinuallyStans舶mChapterTwo,whichproVidesanoveⅣiewofmestudiesonDMsandCDMs.Di鼢眦approachesto也erese砌onDMsarecomp盯ed、vitheachothef、Ⅳitllmeajmtointroduce也estmngerrelevancrbasednmeworkwhichcouldbemorepromisinginexpIoringtllenatllreaIldcharacteristicsofCDMs.
ChapterThreefirstlyproyidesarougllintroductionofRelevancet11eoⅨthenexamhlestheostensiVe-i11ferentialco跚u面cationmodelarldthePrincipleofReleVance,aIldfinallycomparedw“hthetraditionalViewsofcontext,也erclevance—theoreticnotionofcogn三tivecontextisaIlalyzed.
Inthe1ightofReieVancemeoryinnDducedinChapterThree,ChapterFourgivesatentatiVeaccountofcognitiVemotivationforusingCDMs.Thentheinvestig砒ionismadeonTT
thecogIlmvepropenyofproceduralmeaningwhichmakesCDMscmciaJintheutceranceimerpret砒ion.TheproceduralmeaningofCDMsofintroducingcontradictionandeliminationisappliedtotheanalySisof6“f.Atentativeattemptismadetoaccommodatethetypicalinte叩retationsof6甜intheumtaryproceduralaccollIltofintroducingcon廿amctionandelimination.F11nhcnnore,t11ediscoveryofthefactthat也econtc越ualassumptionscanbederiVed行omalmosta11subclassesofcognitivecontext,includ如gphysicalcontext,co—text,lingIlistic妯ctureand肌cyclopedics锄ctureiseXpected
forwhy6甜caIl
TheoccIlrtoproVideacognitiveexplanationinalmostall也econtrastivecomext姐dreplaceomerCDMsacc印tablydistin幽onbetween6碱Aowever
concluding
asandnever魄e如ssistentat~elymscussed.majorfindingsareChapterFiveist11eremad(s,wheretllewellaSsummarized.areLimitationsoft11epresemstudy
discussedintllischaDteLtllesuggestionfor缸nlreresearchalso
Keywords:con廿aStivediscoursemarkers{
ReleVancemeo珂cognitiVe—pragmatic越alysis
III
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Acknowledgements
Thisdissenationisaccomplishedunderthe
rcspectedsupervisor
encouragememaIldPmfessorzhangcriticism.inspiration姐denlightemnentofmytoshaojie.I锄greatlyindebtedhisconstantcons咖ctiVe
Mye锄estm赳出salsogotoProfessorY撕gZlmng,ProfessorChengXiaoguang,ProfcssorKongDehIli,ProfessorYrmgYuchen,ProfessorSuiMingcai,andProfessorSongZhipingfort11eirenlighteningteachmgwhichprovestobeofgrcathelpinmydissenatjonfbⅡnationaIldacademicresearch.Ialsoowe
whohasbeenanadeepgratitudetot11eforeignteacherDavidunfailingsollrceofsupportinmyacadenlicwritingtechniquesaIldskills.
Finally,1would1iketoth鲫Ikmyparerltsandmy衔endsfortheirwh01eheanedsupportf-orme.
ChapterOne
Introduction
1.1Discourse
Markers(DMs)and
ContrastiveDiscourse
a
Markers(CDMs)
relateddass
ArapidIyexpandingbodyofresearchhasbeendealingwithfunctionally
ofconnectiveexpressions
as
thoseinboldmthefollowingsequences:
(1)a.SueleRVerylate.Butshearrivcdontimc.
b.Ybuhaveto
c.DorHtaisnot
helpllim.AfteraIl,heisyollrbrotlleL
sheⅥDuldbe.
to
here,althoughshe髓id
Thesewords
or
lexicaIexprcssionsdonotbelonganyoft11em勾or
syntacticcategories,nor
dot11eyindicateobjects,evems
or
pmperties.Theirmeaningsdonotseemtoconmbutetothe
occut
conceptualmeaningofutterances证whichtheyproperty:tlleyimpose
a
Instead,theyshare
one
common
rcl撕onsllipbetween山esegmenttheyintroduce,whichiscalledS2,
龇ldⅡ1esegmentprecediIlgtllem,whichiscalledS1.AvadetyofnaIneshaVebeenla_beledtotheseitems,butrecentresearchhaswitnessedtlletendency廿lattheyhavebeenfkquemlyfeferredtocompeting
as
DISCOURSEMARXERS(DMs)andbecomethemostpopularof
mis
a
hostof
no
tc肌s.In
disse删on、粉adopt
the
nalne
ofDMsbecause“shows
pre传renceforthe
syntactic咖ctllreor劬ctionsof让略linguisticexpressionsanditimposes
on
theleastrestrictions
therangeofapplications.
havebeenmadesincethe1980’stode最neandstudyDMs.The
fbanlresthewholehistoryofmeresearch
on
Constant熊errlpts
divergenceofthcpossiblefor
us
te珊DMs
a
DMsanditseems
toobtain
roughidea
of也c
aboutthepropeniesandcharacteristics
to
ofDMs
fmm也e
foIlo谢ngMef∞eounts
systematicresearchmeaIls
as
a
on
de£nitions西ven
DMs.schi脚n(1987),whoiIl主ti蹴d
ser、,eas
a
DMs,5tatcsthatDMsirIdicatetheleveIsofdiscoursea11d
into
a
ofintegrating恤levcls
segmentsand
are
coherent
whole.HoweV%forFraser(1990,1999),DMs,
a
subclassofpragmaticmarkers,signal
used
ce—n
relationshiptllatthcspeal【∞r洒tends
a
betwe啊thc
to曲‘ectme
hearer’sinterprctation.Each【'M}las
core
meaning,butthemeaningis
not
conceptualbutmtherpmcedural,wheretheDMsignalshow
S2istobeinterpreted.withinmeRelevallce
Theory行蛐eWork,Blake咖re(2004)defines
are
DMs
asa
symacticallyhcterogen∞usclassofexpressionswllicll
diStinguiShedbytheir
如nctionindiscourseandthekilldofmeallingtheyencode.ShcassumesthatDMsindicateexactlyhowtllerelevanceofoneproposmonisdependent
onto
theinterprctationofano也erandmstructmehearertodcriveⅡ1e
an
DMs
are
added
be柳eenmetwosegmentsin
an
attempt
intended
impIicatL职.AIl
t11ishasmadeitclearmatDMspIayimponantrolein
ut七erance
imerpretationandfurtherresearchofDMsisin1lrgemneedtomakeintheunexplored
1
domains.
Research
areonDMshasbeendominatedbytaXonomyandclass试cation、vhich,ingeneral,madeatadescriptiveIeVel.ThemostnoticeablefigureinmisfieldisFraserwhohaSmadegreatcontributionstomeresearchof七lMs.ItisFmserwhocoinedthemakers”anddividedtheDMs
equiValenttothosesuggestedby
Thefollrsubclassesaretem“contrastiveareintofoursubclasses,ThesefourcategoriesroughlYBlakemore(1992)intermsofthemessagesrelatedbyDMs.illustratedbythef0110win2examples:
(2)a.weleftlate.胁wPvPr,wegotmereontime
b.Thebankhasbeenclosed
c.IaU出阱砌螂,wecouldn’tmakeawithdrawal_amglad也atis最nished.乃耐甜m细则pD加^I’dliketodseussyourp印eL
picIlicisnlined.ThernayonnaisehaSd.net啪edr肌cidThebeeriswaml.fkr肪ermo旭,itisraining.
Inthefirstcase,厅。wPVP,signalsthattheexplicitS2messageisinunexpectedcon昀stwith柚impliedmessageassociated惭ths1.suchDMsarelabeledContrastiveDiscourse
asMarkers(cDMs).In(2b),肪淞signals
athatthesegmentfollowingistobetakenexpressingconclusionforwhichthecoIltemofS1providesiustification.Inmissense,thesecondsubclasswhich
DiscourseSi熙alsS2tobetakenaSaconclusionbasedonSlisentmedasInferennalMarkers(IDMs).I工l(2c),幻理f“牌幻开矿pD加f
assignalsthereintroductionoftheT0picChaIlgeDiscourseMarkers
aspreVioustopicofthediscourse.Thisgroupisref已rredto(TcDMs).n砌ermo冲in(2d)si印als
moreitemto
signalsaathat血ccontemofS2istobetakenadd啦one1istofconditionsspecinedbytlleprecedillgdiscourse,sothecatcgorywhichbe“帕enS2arldSliscalledElaborativeDiscoursequasi—parallelrelationship
Markers(EDMs).TheDMsincludedi11mesefourgroups盯elistedinTable1.CDMs6删,altematively,although,con拄arytoexpectanons,
conVersely,despite(tlli“mat),eVenso,howeVer,inspiteof(t11i“that),incomparison(wimthis/mat),incontrast(tothis/mat),instead(of
onthi鼬神,neVenheless,not谢thstand加岛this/mat),theottler王laIld,ont王lecontrary,rather(thafl
rcg盯dless(ofmis/tIlat),sml,though,whereas,yet
IDMsSo,aRerall,allmingsconsidercd,asaconclusion,asa
consequence(oftllis/mat),asaresuh(ofthis/that),because(ofmis/thanconsequently,forthis/matreason,hence,itfollows
case,onthat,accordingly,int}lis/_t11at/arlythi趴hatcondition,on
tllese,thosegrounds,men,thcrefore,thus2
EDMs
aⅡd,aboveall,also,altematively,arlalogousIy,besides,byⅡlesametoken,correspondingly,equally,forexample,forins协nce,fhnheHnore,inaddition,inomerwords,in
panic山ar,like晰se,
morcaccurately,moreimportamly,nloreprecisely’moretothepoint,Inorcover,onthatbasis,ontopofitall,or,otherwise,
rather,si玎marly,thatis(tosay)
TCDMs
backto
myorig洒alpoint,before
toupdateyou,ona
I
forget,by
the姗Iy,
incidentally,just
di氐rent
note,Speakingof
X,thatremirldsme,tochangetotopic,toretumtomypoint,whileI也inkofit,withregardsto.
T£lble1:FoIlrSubclassesofDMs
Asisshownabove,CDMssignal
a“con位嘶ve”relationshipbetween
caSes
thesegrnentthey
jnHDduceand也eprecedingsegment,a1也Oughinsomecontrast.Insomecases,someexprcssionsbearingthe
theysignalmorcthansimple
as
s锄e
fornl
CDMs
are
fLlnctioning
di腩rently.For
example:
(3)a.A:Ihaddi衄erwith0eo唱elastIlight,
B:B£f∥如c娩玎捌≯md
b.Everyone6“,John
v,as
yougctpaidthe
money?
releasedtogohome.
c.Ihave6“,amoment.
d.胁wPw,hardhe埘es,henevefseemsableto
曰掰in(3a)is
a
worksatis内ctorily.
a
topicchangepragrnatic
an
mad吼in(3b)is
proposmon,mugIllyequivalemto
an
蹦c印^in(3c)ismodi够ing
the
adverb,synonymous谢th鲫咖-,螂.协wP坩,in(3d)is
adVerb
adVerb矗以
simiIar
CDMs,谢th
messageconveyedsubclass
com硎vcmeanin&provideiⅢlormation
by
themamfocusofthepresentstudy.
on
howtoimeIpretme
bythesegmemimroducedthema11dthcpriorsegmem.Ast11eprincipal
ofDMs,theyare
1.2SignificanceofthePresentstudy
FormanytheoristswhoseintereStliesincohcrence,DMs“discourse
are
seen
as
a
kindof
glue”(schi衢in,1987).The埘mary
uS
roleofDMsistheirfunctionin
estabI㈣ng
the
cormectivityi11discourseandfacilitatingHowever,itcannotbe
toaccoumfortheteXtualunityofdiscourse.
ignoredthattllestudyofDMsenlel_gedand掣ew
or
just“tb
deVelopmentofpragmatics.Scholars,、ⅣhemerinsyntaX,semanticsregard
the
pmgmalics,tendto
DMs
asa
linguistic
phenomenon
as
which
serves
d”锄ic
a11dpmgmaticf.unctions.Itis
pfagmatk缸lction
ofDMs
guidelinesor。roadsignals’matcontribmeto血ehearer’s
3
inteⅢretation
ofunerallcesa11d
helpmehearermakelessprocessingeff-ortforachieving
cognmee&cts.The肌itmI
the
achieVementsmadeinthisfieldhaveshownmattlle
rese眦hon
DMs
ispromisingandmanydomainSconcemingDMs
t0
are
underexploration,With伽e
deVelopmentofresearchinmisfield,rcsearcherscomereaIizethatnota11DMsmakeequaI
concributionsinguidingtheheafer’sinterpretationprocesses.Contfastivediscoursemarkers,
as
a
subclassofDMs,wimsimilarmeaningofcontrastwhilebearingsubtledistinctionswhen
used,arecomingto廿lecenterof
DMresearch.CDMs
possessmanyrcpresemativeproperties
afldcharacteristicsoftheprocessof
DMs.What
ismorc,theirsemanticallySpecialpropertyof
con们st
in
communication姐d
in帅retationmakesmemdoom
a
tooccupyme
are
pmminem
dominated
placeintheresearchofDMs.Howevcr,mostofthepreviouSCDMresearchesbyclassificationandtaxonomyateither
eVer
syntadic
ora
sematlticievel.Fewattemptshave
beenmade
to
exploreCDMsfbmthecogIlitiVe—pragmaticperspectiVe,whichis
prospects.ReleVaJlce
be撕ng
promisingandenli曲teningtheo嘞aS
t11e
cognmvepsychological
theoryintroducedbySperberandWilsoninl980s,hasbeenappliedtomanyfieldsofresearchandpr0Videsres山tsofmeresearch
a
noVelVisionfor100kingatmaIlydisputingissuesinlinguistics.The
on
CDMs筋m
well.
t11enewaspectwillsurelyfacilitate
our蛐d哪caIlding
to
ofmuchmoreaboutthenatIlreofDlvIsandthenal=u]陀ofcommunication,andcontribute
language
leamingandteacKngas
1.3DomainofthePresentstudy
Based
on
Relevance
Theo啪me
present
study甜锄plsto
exploreme
n抓聃ofCDMs,a
cDM6w
as
subclassofDMsf如m也e
cog血ive-pragrnatic
perspective,especially
the砸mary
ofDMs
aIldseekformeimplication
of咖dies
on
CDMsfor
exploring恤namre
wim
well
aS
Englishlanguageteachjngand
1e咖ing.
chapters
TheprescmdissertationconsistsoffiveThemaincomentvirtIlalIystudies
on
the血∞duction
aIl
as
Chap忙r0ne.
stans舶mCh印ter
Two,whichprovides
on
overview
of龇
DMsaIld
CDMs.Di氐rent
approachesto也eresearch
DMs
are
comparedwith
eachot}lerwiththeaimtoimroducethesn_0ngerf}amework、ⅣKchcouldbemoreprom{singineXploringthe
nan鹏a11dcharacteristicsofCDMs.
chapterThree矗rstlyprovides
a∞u幽锄∞ductionof
Relevance
theo秭men
examines
theostensive-inferentialcomml|Ilicationmodel
and龇Principle
ofRelevance,aIldfinally
comparedwiththetraditionalvie、ⅣSofcontext,也erelevance?theoreticnotionofcognitive
contextisa11alyzed.
Inthe
1i曲tofRelevallcethcoryintroducedinCllapterTIlree,Ch印terFour西Ves
a
tentativeaccountofcognitivemotivationforusing
CDMs.Then
t11einvestigationismade
on
thccognitiVepropertyofpmceduralmeaIlingwhichmakesCDMscmcialinttleutterance
4
inteIpretation.TheproceduralmeanjngofCDMsofintroducingcontradictionandeliminationisappliedto血eaIlalysisof6“f.TheaIlalysisisfocusednotonlyonhowCDMsactivatetheinferentialpmcedurewhichresultsinthecomradictionandeliminationofanassumption,butalsoonhowCDMsconstraint}lcchoiceofmecognitivecontext,whichuItimateIyinnuencestheinterpretationofutteratlces.Thedistinctionbetween6玑^owev已rand甩已vP,砌P膪ssistentatiVelydiscussed.
Ch印terFiVeistheconcludmgremarks,wherethe
asm匈or矗ndingsareSummariZed.areLimita【ionsofthepresentstIldywellasthesuggestionformnlreresearchalso
discussedint11iscllaDteL5
ChapterTwoReViewoftheLiterature
2.1HistoricalRetrospectofStudiesoⅡDMs
a
Since血e1970s,intcrestmDMshasincreasedcommensuratelywithinlallguageproductionandaspects
asa
growinginterest
comprehension锄d,more
early
as
generally’inpmgmaticandcontextual
ofuttemceinterpretation.As
in1983,LevinsonconfirnledthevalueofDMs
separateclasstobestudied,alth。u出hcdidnotgivei±aname.oStnlan,oneofmee剐y
lcsearchersofDMs,definesDMsas“pragmaticpanicles”,wllichimpIicitlycon、,eythespeaker’samtudesa11demotions.Heholdsthatdiscoursemarkiflg
one
or
discourSeorgallizingis
a
majorfhnctionthatpragmaticpanicleshave.Insteadofgivillg
a
definitionofwhat
pragmaticparticIesare,hehasprovidedwitht}峨eparameters,which
are
pragmaticaI】mysisoftheirmnctionsindiscourse
coherence,politenessandiHvolvement.
Thefirsta11dmostdetaileddescriptionofDMswasmaintainsthateachDMhas
r印orted
by
Schi脏in(1987).Shc
a‘锄re】malling”.Herprimary
provided
a
a
interestisthewaysinwhichDMs
thcnotionof
core
fhnctionto“addtodiscoursemeallingwith
coherence”(ibid).Rcdeker(1991)印pmves
critiqueof
Schifmn.MoreoVer,he
Schimin(1987)and
t}len
proposedseVeralsignificaIltreVisions,includingbased
on
revisedmodelofdiscoursecoherellce
aIld
Sequential
t11ree
components:
IdeationaI
Snllcture,RhetoricalStmcture
Stmctllre.BD_[11Schjfhin趾dRedeker
emphasize协e鼬ctionofDMsin
t11ecoherence,more
importantly,mecoherenceofthediscourseinsteadoftheindividualsentencebythewayofthe
semaIltic-pragmatic印proach。Tllroughout
the1990s,thestudyofDMs1lasexpatlded
co埘nually
alldtIlr_11edinto
a
gro嫩hinduStryin1inguistics,with
B1akernore(1987,1990,1992,20∞,2004),Fraser(1990,
fourtypesofPMs
1996,1999),schourup(1999)asr印resentatives.Fraser(1990)posits
corresponding
to
fourdistinctmessagetypesincIudingBasicMarkers,CommentaryMarkers,
a11dParallelMark盯s.、聃t11inFurthenIlore,he
mis劬mework,DMs
a
areseenaSa
dis廿nctfjurmtypeofPMs.
continuestomakedivisions、Ⅳithin
convenienta11d
or
thesesllbclassesofDMs.Fraser’s
rationalbasis
classmcatoryschemeprovides
expressions
to
appealin西yf研assi印ing
approves山at
a
thedefinifecategorymealling、vhich
call
excluding
t11em(Schourup,1999).He
DMhasa
core
beellrichedbythecontextaIldmaintainsthat
it,allymoret11an
a
DMdoes
not“dispIay”arelations王lip,as
a
sc王li插缸(1987)wouldhaveverbdisplays
on
relationshipbetween
a
su巧ectandobject.R矗ther)as
inte∞广etations
6
hesugges把d,aDMimposes
S2
a
cenainrallgeofintcrpretations,giVenme
ofS1andthemeaningoftheDM,
‘IhemostnoticeabIetiguremthel990sisBlakemorewho、vorksatDMsfromtheperspectivcofRelevantTheoⅨThedefinitiongivcnbyBlakemoreutlderlinesⅡ1efactthattheseexpressionsmustbedescribedatmelevelofdiscollrseratherthaIlsentence.Moreover,BIakemoreemphaSizesthethatrefleetSthefact也attheseexpressions’
orte吼~煳R
onmeamngmustbeanalyzedmtemlsofwhatmeyindicatemarkrathcrnlanwhatmeydescribe.Muchof血eprcviousworkDMsdonebytheresearchershasrcsultcdinvarious
DMsaccountsofdiscourSecoherence,whcreasB1akemoreisthefjrStresearcherwhoexpJores
f玷mthecognitiVe-pragmaticperSpective.
111erearealsomanyresearcherswor【hbe抽gm锄tioned
aswhohavemadegreatcont曲utionstotheexplomtioniIlⅡlcfieldofDMs,suchHalliday&Hasan(1976),Mann
&Thompson(1986)who
analyses也eDMsmakemeirresearchofDMsoncohcrence,Rouchota(1996)whowith趣mecoherencetheory缸回eworkandthefelevance一也eoreticfr咖e、vork
nanjatives.a11dmakesthecompadsonoftheirsilIlilaritiesanddi&rences.Norrick(2001)aIlalyZesDMs洒oralnam瞳iveaIldshowsthatDMsenjoySpecializedfuJlctionsinoral
Inthe1980salld1990s,theresearchonDMsfiguredprominentiynotoniyinpragmaticaItddiscollrseanal”icresearchbutalsoinstudiesoflanguageacquisitionandlanguagepedagogy|THllo(2002)discussesthepragmaticfossilizationofDMsinnon-nativespeakers
asanofEnglishandproVestheroleofDMs
andteaching.elementtoconsiderinsecondlanguageleanling
ComparedwimtheDMsresearchabmad,thedomesticpmgressinthisfieldisrapidandremarkable.Prof.RanYbn印iIlg(2000)notonlyhasprovidedathorou曲a11dcomprehensiveimroductionofDMsresearchmade.mthewestcmworld,butalsoprobedimothedepmoftheChineseconversationphcnom如on硒tllregardtoDMs硒mmepragm“cperspective.Inthe
Xiaoguang(1999,2004)hasexpIorcd矗eidof1anguagelea玎1ingandteaching,Prof=Cheng
tllepedagogicalimplicationsof
makinganDMs(‘metadisco嘲’iIlt11earticle)inwrit证ginspiringlybyexperiIncmalstudyofthee丘’ectofteachingDMsinnleChmeseEFLwritingclass.2.2ApproachestostudiesofDMs
Asseen最℃mChaptefOne,dig宅fentte疆nshaveb∞ngiventoDMs,suchasdiscourseconⅡcctiVes(Blakemore,1987,1992),discollrseop啪torS(Redeker,1990,1991),discourse
D旬k,1979),semanticconjIlncts(Quirkpanicles(schomp,1985),pm鲫aticco皿ectiVes(Van
eta1.,1985),andsemenceco彻ectives(HallidayaIldHasan,1976).Thisdivers时ofterminologypresentsdi髓re】1t印proachestoDMs.These叩proachesmayfallintothreeprominentapproaches:coherenc嚣Ibasedapproach,FammaticaI—pragmatic印pmach,andcognitivc-pragmaticapproach.Inthefollowhgsectionswewilldiscussthethreeappmaches7
separately.
2.2.1Coherence-basedApproach
The
cohcrence-bas耐approach,focusingon
howDMscontributetodiscoursecoherence
semanticallyandpragmatically,givesmuchconsidemtiontothesemarI“cfeaturesaIldpragmaticfIlnctionsofDMs.Among血osewhoholdthecoherence-basedappmachintheresearchofDMs,noticeablercprcsentativesboth
see
are
Schj珩in(1987)andRedeker(1991).They
claimsthata11DMshave
shesuggests
DMs
as
prinladlycuingcohercnce
relations.Sch诵^n
indexicalfunctionstoindex
adjacent
unerarIcestome
comm嘶cators,and
a11alyzingDMsinherfive.planemodelinwllichcoherenceisdeveloped.11hecoherence.basedapproachtoDMswaspropQsed
s锄e
ofthe
are
byLenk(1998)who
holdsthatDMs
“cohereneeindica幻fs”,which如nctionnoto王llytoⅡlelocalc。herencebetw∞nuneranceunits,but
to
discoursecoherence
asa
wholewimout
comributingto
Ⅱleunerance
propositionalmeaning.
Forthesecoherence-basedappmachholders,whatDMsmoStconmbutetodiscourseis
to
showvariouscollerencereIations.However,tlliscoherence-basedapproachgives
no
psych0109icalexplanationwhy也espeal(ertriestoestablishtheintendedcoherencerelation
by
choosing
a
specmcDM,As
a
result,thecoherence.basedapproachcannotbeadequatefor
analyzingDMs.
2.2.2GrammaticaI.pragmaticAppmach
Sincethe1990’s,researcllershaveShiRedtheirstIldiestothepragmatic如nctionsof
DMs,andanalyzedthepragnlaticrolesofDMsindiscourse.Fraser(1990,1999)isthemost
南rce凡Iadvocateofttlis
perspective.Throu曲outhisstudies,Fraserfocuses
on
whatDMs
are
aIldwhattlleir掣ammaticalst{ltusis.Hecare如1lyallalyzesthesymacticpattemingofsome
DMs,aIldfIndsthattheydo
constitute
a
nota11
pattemsyntacticallyalike,thatis
tosay,theydonot
separatesyntacticcatego阱On
theotllerh如d,FrasermaintainsthatDMscontajn
s),IltacticfeaturesbutconveyrichpragrnaticconsiderDMs
as
f血ctionsindiscourse.Soheproposesto
analyzed
as
a
a‘‘pragmatic
the
class’’a11dDMsshouldbewell—defined
pragmaticcategory、vithin
gr猢ar
of
a
1anguage,because协eycontributetome
interprefationofanuttefatlce.
The
grammatical-pragmatic印pmachemphaSizes
as
thegrammatical
or
symactic
status姐d
or
propertiesofDMs,suchmeirwordcl懿s,syntacticpositions,sylltacticc01location
uses
constmints.Butt11ediscussionthatthespeakera11dt0guidethehearcl’tosegments
hasledtothe
DMstodirectutteranceinterpretation,
identi母alld舶derst趾d
therelationshipbetweenthcunerance
D】Ⅵsf}omthecognitiVe—pragInatic
psychologicalanalysisof
perspective.
2.2.3Cognitive—pragmaticApproach
ThecognitiVe’pragmaticapproachisbasedupon也eReleVanceTheoryproposedbyD.
8
SperberandD.wilson(1986/1995),Ⅵ血ich
isgenemllyrecognized
as
as
thetlleoreticalbaSeof
cogn“ivepragmatics.A
fewscholarssuch
Blm∞more(1987,1990,1992,2000,2004),
witllintlle
releVallce
meoretical
Rouchota(1996)havetemativelystudiedsomeDMs行amework.
B1akemorefocusesthe
infcrential
on
howDMsimposecons廿aints
on
hplic叭胛s.In
heropinion,itisconstI_ains
on
co咖ecnonexpressedbyDMsthataUowthemt0
hpose
contextualimplication.111usDMs
are咖died
as
signalsguidingunerallceinteIpretation
as
by
as
meansofwhichspea玉,crsdi印laymeirunderstandingoftheprecedingspeaker
well
irldicatinghowthefollowir培segmentisexpectedtobeprocessed.0nmeotherhand,using
DMs
as
si印postsaIldthussavingllimself靠omu彻ecessary
as
processinge行ort,callreachthe
speal【∞r’sintended
inte单retation
as协t
aIldeasilypossible.StiIIinmetheoreticaI
can
fhHneworkofRelevancethe
111eoⅨRouchota(1996)maintai芏1sⅡ1atDMs
co衄ect
notonly
adjacent
utteraIlces
butalsotheutcerallceandthecomext,andconstrainthehearer’s
an
inferemialprocesseS.Researcheswjthint11eRelevancetheoryfhmeworko丘h
accountfor廿lerole
impressive
DMsplayin
utteranceinterpretation.
Tb
surn
up,byrevealingsome
remar妇ble
propertiesofDMs,tllepast代searchhas
see
admirin舀yiaida伊eatgroundfornlePrcsemand如turcrese甜dlintKsfield.N话call
that
di疏rent
researcherShave
di疏rent
opinions
on
on
DMs,whichenable
usto
distinguishmeir
on
theoreticconcentrationsa11dViews
DMs.Thecoherellce.basedapproachfocuses
how
DMshelptobuilduporidenti母tlle
approach
relationshipbet、Ⅳeensegmentsofdiscollrse,whereasme
on
gr啪matical.pragmatic
concentratest】1e
analysis
ofpragmatic
mnctions
accordingtothelinguisticpmpeniesinlallguageproductionandintelpretation.ComparedwimmetwoapproachesabOVe,mecognitiVe巾ragmaticapproachnlaybemorepromisir唱inexplaininghowDMscollstrain也erelev8nceofthe
u龇ees
a
indiseollrseandthus
to髀ide
a
mehear甜toacbieVetheintef诏edinteIpretation.AtldReleVanceTheorymayprovide
strong
the
f‰1ework
analysisof
to
exploretlle
natureof
DMs.HoweV%all
few
the
researcherstaking
releVance—meoreticalperspectiVehaVeoIllyexplained
a
s印arateDMs.No
systematical
certaingroupofDMshas
everare
beenmade行ommecognjtive-pragmaticequallyconsciouslyprocessedbymehearer
aIl
perspectiVe.Incommunication,notallDMs
inuneranceinteIpretation.Thatis,notallDMsmake
equalcornributioninguidingthe
he勰r’s血妇pre诅tionprocess.CDMs
姒出other
DMs。TakingCDMs
as
are
regarded
as
being
ouf
hi曲ly
motiVatedincomparison
a
t}lema砸concemin
on
research,wewillpfo“de
brief
oVerviewof血edominamstudies
nextsectjon.
thcsyntactic-pragmaticclassiflcationofCDMsinthe
9
2.3ovenriewofstudies
on
CDMs
on
E盯lyresearchinDMswasmostlyfocusedparticularcharactefisticsand
certainseparateDMs,exploring血eir
on
fhnctions.While
thefocus
s印羽ateDMs
waSpreVailing
throughoutthe1980sand1990s,m明y
rese黜hersincluding
Schimin,Frasera11dB1akemore
mentionedabovesetfbrthnleirhuit如laIldsystematicdiscussionofthepropertiesoftheDMs,t11erolctheypiayindjscourSe,andwhatthegrammaticalstatusofDMsjs,includingtheir
syntactic趾d
semaIltic
c№teristics.In
therecentresearch,manyresearchersreturntome
inVestigationofsomeindividualDMs,espcciallysome1argeliteratureHa】1dayand
on
p枷cuIar
aIld
CDMs.Thcrcis
a硒rly
of
6北includingLako伊s(1971)semantic
aIldextenlaI
anddenialofeXpectation6“r,
Hasan’s(1976)intemal6以DaScalKatriel’s(1977)notion
cancellative6zf『,a芏1d
Scllif衔n(1987)、Ⅳith
a
herreferential,functional6“f.Fraser
a11d
Malamud-Mokowsl(i(1996)made
discoursemarkers.ThereRelevance
seen
as
are
comrastive
analysis
set
ofEnglishandspanishcontrastivctheCDⅣIsintheframeworkof
somemeorislswho
aII
Theo够Iten(1998,2001)o虢red
clarify
anaIysisofthemeaIling
of口触。蚴whichis
encoditlgpfocedllral
attemptsto
iⅢ'0n删on血at
t11e
collstmi王1smeinfbrentialprocess.Blakemorc
(2000)made
thenotionofproceduralmeaningbyanalyzing6“fand
meaningof6甜ontlle
basisofmeworkof
"Pv盯肪P肠55.Ha】l(2004)reanalyzed
BlakemoreandItencognjtivelyHo、Ⅳcver,onlyanalyzeCDMs
as
a
Fraser(1999)madeattemptstosystematically
distinctsubclass丘Dmthesyntactic—scmamicperspectivesanddescribe
uses
eitherthcacceptable
oftheseCDMs
or
therokthcyplayin如ediscollrserelations.
Aldloughthisapproachis1yingin廿ledangerofdescribingthesuperficialpropertiessharedbysomecenaingr01巾ofCDMsalldoften
too
su腩rs
fromthecdticismforclassmcationbeing
narrow
or
broad,asketchoftheresultsoftheamlysis、vinsurelyshed1ight
onollr
researchand
enli曲tenus
tosomeextentonthea11alysisof
on
CDMs.Int11ef0110、vingsections,1
willbrieflyiIl仃oducethea11alysismadebyFraser2.3.1SyⅡtacticPatternsof
theCDMs.
CDMs
are
TheCDMslistedinChapter0neand
cQnsideredtosharediff毫∞ntsyntacticpropemes
do∞t
allpa拄emSyntacdcallyalike.Accordingto
proposedmecaIlonical
Fraser(1999),也ereare
first
four
case
di恐rent
inv01Ves
panems,althou曲he
thecDMsco甩fm9
Dn
fomas<s1.DM+S2>.The
fo£孕ec细f如,琏∞”v口坩e巩Pw九so,矗Dwewc珂PVP,胁P胁只加胛e历P胁墨
ands,fn11lesemarkers盯ellsuallytakenS2,wheretheS2
occurs
as
f船∞以扩盯,卫D,z历Po历口r矗口胛Z
an
as
mecitation
foml.HeretheCDMintroduces
Thisisillustratedin(3):
a
separatesylltacticsegment.
(3)a。JohnwaSlateinleavinghome。幽wevPr,karrived
b,Harryisno
Asecond
case
on
time.
gcntlemaIl,(加觑∞触留∥,heisarudebore.
one
involvesoIllyCDM,6“tIt
10
calloccur
both缸initial?S2position,like
向DwPv窖r,a11d
asa
coordinatejoiningS1aIldS2,asshownin(4),?
(4)a.Johnenjoys
b.John
riding.日甜Harry1ikeswalking.riding,6“rHarry1ikeswalking.maynothave
a
enjoys
or
Mowover,6“fmay
pauseaRerit,whjIemostoftheocherCDMshaw
a11
obligatorypause.Forexample:
(5)a.HewantedtogotoGraceland.口“f,heagreedtogotoDisney
see
World加J膪ad
b。Hanycan’t
AtIlird
case
Very
wdl,B玑加印肋铘^becanh%rperfectly-
involves血e
CDMs出印妇mi肌矗口驴,胁印妇矽∞趣砌a砂,伽co肝2pdrjJo玎
likethefirstcl雒s,h1订oducing
indepcndentS2.
(WttⅣtoth{斟thn让.{ncontr∞t(tomifhmtsAhnf).{nStendf彭(doin勘thi蚋hnt).rdmer(1hdn
^拗历招竹砌r,.nleseCDMs缸1ction
in
aJl
However,eachoccurswiththepronoull(misorthat)fiIIedin
occurs
areverse
wimamodi6edforInofSI,and
pattem.
on
(6)a.Jolln
waslateinleaVinghome.肌叩加,^坦hearrived
time.
aIldslept.
a
b.Jjmdidn’tgoto
sch00】today肺膪耐矿加括,hes叼edathome
cDMs口触D“曲and
Thefourthpattcminvolves也e
whP阳m,whichintroduce
segmemonly
whenitiscombinedsyntacticallywithS1.
(7)a.JollIl
waslateinleaVinghome,础^D嘞heamvedontime.
mascot
is
a
b.Thc陕mocrat’s
el印hant.
Compare讲tll
donkey,w丙已膨甜meRepublican’smascot
isan
mefollowillgtwocXamples:waslateinlea“ng
(8)a.John
home.胁wPy即j
a
heamved
on
time.
an
b.TheDemocrat’smascotis
donkey.如co”f,甜CtheRepublicanlsmascotis
el印haIlt.
Infact,the
toexhausta}i
CDMs
are
ac“veandnexibIein也eposmonofule
se疵nce.Itisatlardjob
sy呔lcticpatte咖ngofCDMs.T酞e砌weV盯as垃te
whcrcitin仃oducest11eS2aIldtlleS2
caIl
occursaSa
example,whichisincIudedseparatesymacticsegInem.
inthefirst
case
Thefollowingse眦encesshowthat而DwPVPr
appearnotoIllyattheinitialpositionofS2,
butalsoattheendofS2.Thesemicolonalsomakesitpossible
SentenCe:
t0印pearin
t|lemiddleofthe
(9)a.It’smillinghard.IstillwaIlttogo,^DwPw—
b.It’sraininghard;矗ow口ver,I
2.3。2
still啪ntto
go.
syn纽eticBp髑ofCDMs
A11theexamplesofCDM8presentedaboveallconsiStedof
a
declamtivesentence,then
a
CDM,followedbyal】CDMs
caIl
a
second
decl锄tive
sentence:<Declarative.CDM+Declarative>.While
arean
occur
intllispanem,ttlerc
othcrsyntactictypeswDnhyconsider;ng.WeinteⅡDgative
or
6ndchatonlyfollowing
a
6“,and肋wPl’P,inm)duce
impemt押econsⅡ1lction、vhen
declarative,asshownin(10):
11
(10)a.The
b.【t’s
AndⅡ1eCDi订s
shipmentofcaIldyhas
aⅡived.四“棚DwPv蹦don’ttouchit
today四“f/舶wPVe,,when、vill
as
alri曲t
suewasn’there
as
shebeabletocome?
f,z5≠e矗讹f弁Pr
a
well6甜rand矗DwPvPr
can
imroduceS2wheninthe
pattem<Imperative、CDM+DecIarative>,硒showllin(“):
(11)a.1lIke
1etteLB“£亿幻¨'PvP,Idon’twantyou
to
sentitrighta、Vay.
b,Don’ts“down.如sfPd西1wamyoutotake
a
walkwithme.
a
Notematthesegmentin仃oducedbytheCDMhastheforceofthesyntacticfornlisthatof
a
directive
even
thou曲
declarative.An<Imperative.CDM+Imperative>sequence
occllrs晰mthesefburas、wllaso玎腑Po腑8r^口耐a11do门抽P∞竹f阳唧
(12)a.’I放e
a
letter.骞材暑锄wevgr,tellmeifIamgoingtoofast.
tobaceo.胁即僦p勉妇P,,chewmestu行(inStead>.
c.Keepthefait}1.(抽如D砌e,^盯,砒don’tbestupid曲outit.
b.Don’tsmoked.Don’t
stop.伪腑e
cD以f,嗍keepgoinguntilyousee血eredhouse.
are
TheremaininRfourcombinationsdonotoccur.Thesefacts
summarizedinT曲le2.
BU
D.D
oKoK0K0K
H0oKoK0KoK
OToK
CNoK
CM
OK
CVoK
NVOK
INOK
RAoK
CYoK
D-№
I.DI.1
}
0KoK
OKOK
0K
OKOK
I-Q
Q?M/Q
T曲le
2:Co?occurrence
+
^女
ofCDM丽th
Syntactic聊es
RA=mther;
CY=on
the
<BU_but;HOHhowever;0T=onⅡ掉othef
ha咄CN=incont潞t;CM-=in∞mparison;
CV弋onversely;NV=neve肺eless;IN-instead;
D.declarative;12i删)emtive;Q2question)
cont删;
2?3?3COmpOsitiOnOf
CDMs
occur
Fraser(1999)claims6讲isbyfhmemostgeneraloftlleCDMsand“can
slotswhere
no
insome
omerCDMs
arc
peminedaIld
canoccur
int}lesameutterallcewimneadyall
asa
CDMs.All,except
D咒珐g∞撵黝秒(andofeourse口f珐。昭盎andw豇P您甜)'canoccurinS2
eatit.
a
CDMwhenS2isin仃oducedby6“t
(13)a.Ilikecheese.B玑on折PD厢P,而日甩吐Iprobablyshouldn’t
b.Jimgave
a
booktoh厦ar)‘6“‘加cD疗f,‘础乇DaVegaveher
doU.
c+A:Fredmaynotl汝ememovie.
B:?日她on腩eco竹印口fy,heratherenjoyedit.
nshouldbe
noticedmat^owevP,apparemlywouldnot
12
co-occllr
with6甜ata11.The
compositionof6甜and肋wPv盯isdisagreeableandcommonredundancy.Eit}ler6w
attheexample:
no
or
矗owPvP,su伍ces;oneshouldbetaken,andtheothcrlefc.L00k
(14)?B甜f-tmustA1though
beremembered,矗Dw8VPr,thatt王leGoVemmenthad
guarar】tee.
mostofCDMsconformtotheregularcompositionalsemanticrules柚d
ca叫ot
catl
combincwithotherconstrLIctions
createacomplex
one
mside,CDM加∞肋铘rdoes
notIHlde唱ome
rulc锄d
wimwords1ikeco删p如船orfo船t
2.3.4Sema皿ticPropertiesofCDMs
AsisshownaboVe,CDMspossesssomeparticularsyntacticpropertiesdistinguishedfromomerDMs.However,t11eresuItsof廿lesyntacticpropertiesdiscussedofCDMs
are衙
fbmunderstandingCDMsbetter.Fewresearcheshavetouchedthedomainofsemantic
characteristicssharedbyCDMswhosedistinctions、vi血eachother
areso
subtlea11dhardIy
explicable.Fraser(1996)a唱ues
mat也ere
are
specmc“meaningdistinctions”betweeneach
tolist廿le
core
ofCDMsmentionedabove.Hehasmade
a啦mptsmeaningsofsomemain
toisoJate
an
CDMs.Inmostc孙es,studiesofindiVidualDMshaVeattempted
semanticcontentforeachmarkeLSuch
“corc
invariant
as
inVari皿tsem锄tic
contentisusuallyreferredto
its
meanm岔’.(Schourup,1985;Schif黼n,1987;Fraser,1990).ForCDMs,becauseof也e
ofmeaning研m
eachomer,itis
toother
closeness
one
o矗en曲possibleto
detemlineme
core
meaningof
CDMwithoutre南Ⅱing
CDMs.
soInc
When
sketchingtlle
core
meaningsof
maitlCDMs,wenoticet11atinsome
cases
thecontrastiVemeaning
c删ot
beinferred丘omSldirecUy.Byelabomtingthepreviousa她jtementoftlledi丘erentpossiblecomrastivecontextsin
research,Fr雏er(2005)prcsented
Englisha11dexploredtoⅥmatextemtheCDM6地wllich
heconsidefs
as
theprimaryCDM,
occurs证eachofmem.ByscrutiIlizingmecon打astivecoDtextsinEnglish,Fraserproposedmatthereis
a
major
distinction-directvs.indirectcontrastivecontexts.Adlrectcon仃astive
contextoccurswhe珥forSl—CDM—S2,矗ispossibletocomparemeexpIicit
i唧retation
as
ofS2withmeexplicitinte巾retationofS1andthereby
derivc计lat
call
beconstrued
a
meaningmlsemantic
conⅡ_astiVecomext
contrastofthe
type
a
signaled
bymepanicularCDM,Anindirect
occurs
when,for
sequenceS1一CDM—S2,nDmeaningfuldirect
contrastcallbemadebet、ⅣeentheeXplicitinterpretationsof
S2孤d
S1.
as
Witllin
each帅e
ofcontrastivecontcxt,廿lere
are
sevemlsubtypes
sho、v11inme
followingtable:
DirectCDMsCoInparativecontrast
Paired—oppositeconnastReplacementcontrastCorrectivecontrastS2comradicts
inferenceofS1aincomparison;incontraStcoHverselvinstead:ratheronnlecontrarythecontextualaltllou曲;but;aUcontrarytos眦e;
only;expectation;despite;except;
h0、vever;evenso;inspiteof;nevertheless,still
IndirectCDMsS2contradictSabut;except;only
presuppositionofSlS2contmdicts趴but;except;onlyemailmentofSl
S2contmdicts
anaIlaspectofactbut;exc印t;only;oncOntrarytheillocutionaryconveyedbySl
T,Ible3:DirectandIndirectCDMs
InalltheseteIldistinctconnastiVecome硪s,ofmedircctCDMs,metirstfollrcomextsallpemit6ⅢtooccuLThefifmcontextofr印1ac黜∽ntpe皿_lits6姚but、晡thomthef瑚把ddsense,whilethesix廿lcorrectiVecontr嬲tcontextdoesnotindirectCDMs,6甜mayoccurpe肌it6甜tooccllratall-0fmeinall,signalingcomraldictionwithmeinfcrenceofS1.
onHo、vcver,tlleclassmcationbased
anyexplanation.direc恤essonlyprovidestlledescriptioniIlsteadofgiving
14
CHAPTERTHREE
ASKETCHoFTHEORETICALBACKGRoUNDOF
RELEVANCETHOERY
3?lReleVance’Iheory
ReleVancenleory(RT)isacog血iVepsychologicalmeoryandaninferentialapproachtopragmatics.Itanemptstoanswernotonlyphilosophicalquestionsaboutthenatureofcom瑚uIlication,butalsopSychoIogicalquestioIl5abomhowtlleinteIpretationprocessLul如ldsintllehearer’smind(Wilson,2001).matRelevance111eoryclaimstoprovide
aisatheoryofcogmtiveprocessesa11dtheoryofcomm嘶catiO玛onwhichwebasetoaccountforhow
utterancesare{nterpreted.IthaSbeennearlytwentyyearsnowsince壬汀Was丘rstin廿0dⅥ司bySperbera11dWilson.11letwoeditionsofttlebookhavebeenstudiedandcommemedbyco哪lesstheorists.Myar91衄emsinthisp印eronmeCDMs埘ll
cl础tybemainlybasedonReleVanceTheoryformeore廿calsupport.Forthesakeof
discussion,inthischapterI、villgive
generalaandconvenienceinlatersI【etchofsomebasicnotionsofrelevanceandtwDp曲cipleswhichlay也efoundationfor也erdevance—meoreticapproachtoCDMs.3.2ostensive—iⅡf.erentialComnlunication
MosthumancommullicationssharconeesSentialfeature,nlatis,theexpressiona11d
ol】rrecognitionofintentions,bomvcrbalandnDn—verbal.Asspeakers,、vemusttrytoexpress
in南mla虹0nemcientiyafldm越障ourh。afers爬cognizeourintentions
stateoftoin内nn亡hemofsomeaf瞄rs.Itisgencrallyaccepted也atspeakersalwayshavethetelldencytomaketheir
orinte小ionmanifest.Wbcallsuchbehaviorostensivebehavior
ostensiVebehavjormaybeusedtoprovidetwolayersofsimplyostension.AnactofinitialIayerofjnfomation:an
ainfb册ation,whjch
theinfonnation.It
in把n芏ion.thespeake‘pointsouttomehearer,aIldsecondIayerofinfbnIlation,whichmayinv01Vethespeakcr’sindicatingthathehasintentionallymanifestedtomehearercanthereforebedescribedintermsofaninfonnativeandcommunjcative
a.Theinf0ⅡIlativeimention:
1、heintentiontoinfonn
b.anaudienceofsomething.Theconlmunicativei11tention:
TheintentiontoinfonnIheaudienceofone’si耐’omlativeintention.
Itisnothardtoseehowthe血1filhnentoftllecommuIlicativeintemion
15canleadto血e
±mflllmentoftlle
infornlatlve
ime埘on:the
an
realizationtllat
reason
a
tnlstwonhycommunlcator
intendstomakeyoubelievesometllingis1986/1995、
excelIemfor
belieVing.(sperber&wilson
Incontrast,ashearers,、Vemustrecognizewhatmespeakers
intendto
in士、o舯us
of_
Whcn
thespeakerencodesherintendedmessagebasedon也ecodemodela11dtraIlsfersthe
infonn丑tiontot}lehearerwithintcmion,comnluIlicationwiUnotbesuccessfuliftheheareronly
comprehends
the
utterance
bydecoding
the
1inguisticmeaJling,
1nfercnce
to
isthe
indiSpensableintheprocessofrecognizingtllerealintentionoftllespeal(erfAccording
iⅢbremialmodel,acommuIlicatorprovidesevidenceofherimention
mea芏1恤g,whichis
t0convey
a
cenain
in鼢钮by岫audienceon也ebasisoftheevidence
willmakethispointciearer:
use
provided.(Wilson&
Sperber,2004).Thefoiiowingexamplo
(15)A:CouldI
yollrprinter?
B:I锄just
Aprovides
a
abouttogotothclectllre.
encoding
1inguistically
in
ma血festrequestofusingB’sp—nterby
inteITogativcfbrnl.Itcostslittleeff.ortandtimeforBtorecogrIizetlle血tentionofA,srequest.Ontlleothcrh卸d,B
o腩rs
aIl
iIldircctansweLA
can
supplyt11econtextualassunlptionin
conclusion
(16a),and
inferring.
gettheiInpIicatcdpremisein(16b)andimplicatedin(16c)a&r
(16)a.BisbuSya11dabouttoleavenow
b.IfBisaboutto
1eave,Ac籼ot
use
theprimeL
c.Ac咖ot
propositions
as
use
theprimer.
a
Asisshown行omtheexample,itisclearthatinfcrcnceis
prelnisesand
fonnaloperationthattakes
a
yields
propositions懿conclusions.Given
setofdeductive
mles,andgivena
Inthetransfcrringspeal【eL
setofpremises,thedeductiVeconcluSionsareautomaticallygenefated.
above铽ample,t11e
whole
courSe
ofcommunjcationinvolvesthemanifestly
the
i11f0珊acion
aIld
tothehearer,arld
infbrring孤didenti匆ing
l【ind
of
inte埘ons
ofthe
Sperber
Wilson
callt11is
comm倒cation
afe
ostensive—inferential
saIIle
communication.1nfcremialcommuIlicationandostension
one
andthe
process,b“C
a
seen丘Dmtwodiffbrentpointsofview:AspeakerisiflVolVediIlostensionandiIlfbrence.Ostensive.inferentialcOmmunicationconsistsofmakillgmanifcstto
one’s
hearerinaudience
an
intentiontomakemanif色st
a
baSiclayerofinfoml“on.
can
Fromt11eanalvsisabove,we
arriveat
a
concluSionthati11ordertosucceedin
communication,t|lespeakermustdesigntoat廿actthehcarer’s
atte嘶on.DMs,as
such
a
panicular
categorywithouttrutllconditionsand“linguisticallyencodedclucswhichsignalthespeal(er’spotentialcommunicative
intentions"(Fraser,1996),are
considered
asa
1inguiSticdeVice
thatmakest11eimentionofthespeakermaIlifestandproVideseVidenceforthehearerto.mfer廿1eimentionofthespeakeLIIlthissense,thestudyofCDMsbearsmuchValueinresearching
16
cognition,comm砌cationandcomprehension.Tk
cormunicationiscmcialina11alyzingthcDMsa11dCDMs
inthe
not沁nofwell.
ostenSive—int’erem“
as
3.3ThePrincipleofRelevance
According
to
Sperbera11dWilson,communication
that
are
results抒omtllebeliefthat
h啪aIls
hlllll肌
tendtopayattentiontothosephenomena
mostrelevaIntothem.Thefktthat
as
a
comm吼ication
isreIevallce?orientedis、ⅣideIy∞cepted.ReIevanceistreated
pmpenyof
iTlputstocognitiVeprocessanddenI圮dintermsofcogllitivee任宅ctandp∞cessinge丘10rt.CognitiVe
e丘’ects,also
called
a
contextual
e圩’ects,areachieved
wben
newlypresemed
info玎nationinteracts、vithand
contextofexiSt;ngassumptionSinoneoftheth珲eways.S职rber
Wilson
illustraCe血esepossibilitiesthroughthefollowing
ex锄ples.
info衄ation
alone.
or
Thefirstfonnofcontextuale丘bctiscontextualimplicationthatis血mlcrwKch
c籼0tbededucedfr啪ei也crmeexistingass啪ption
up“m
mefollowing血ought:
raillin舀I’11stayathome.
me
n洲information
Supposethatonewakes
(17)a.Ifit’s
HelooksoutofthewindowanddiscOvers:
(17)b.Tt’s
railling.
Fromtheexistillginfbnnation:
ass啪ption(17a)andthenewinformation(17b),wecandeducethefuIthcr
(17)c.I,llstayathome.
TflesecondfomIofcontextuaIe丹bctisthes订engmeningofexistingwakes
ass啪ptions.0ne
up,he撕ng
a
pattcring衄tIleroo£andfomsthehypomesis.
(18)a.It’s
Hegoesto
rajIling.
t11e州ndow,looksout,discoVers(18b),andstrcmg廿】肋shisassu】即tions.
raining.
(18)b.It’s
The
tllird
fo衄of
contextual
eff&tisthecomradictionandeliminationofold
ass啪ptions.AssuIllp廿ons
contradicto叮assumptions
placedinmemoryhaveVaryingdegreesof
are
s帆gm.When
one
tWo
deriwd,the豫}aker
one
isabandoned.Thus
wakesup,
he撕ng
apatteringon
t11e
roof'aIldfonns也ehypothesis:
(19)a.It’s
rajning.
Hegoestomewilldowand1DDksout.Thistime,however,hediscoversthatcontradictory
to
actually(】9b)is
hisearlyassumption:
notrailling,bmtherearecatsontheroof.
a
(19)b.It’s
Itisthusclailncd廿latnewlypresentedinfbHnationisrelevaIltiIloniywhen矗achieVesconfex£ual
contextwhenand
e氐c括主n
that
contex£,翘dtkgreafer出e∞ntextuaie僚cts,
thegreaterthereleVance.However,contextualeffectsdonotcomefkely.Theycostsome
17
mentalefrorttodcrive.The粤弓atertheprocessingeⅡbrtneededtoderivethem,thelowertherelevancewillbe.andvice
Relevanceof
an
versa.
inputto
an
indiVidual:
a.Omertllingsbeingequal,也e掣eaterthepositivecognjtive
processingtime.
b.O也ermingsbeingequal,meFe砒ertlleprocessing
releVanceoftheinputtot11eindi“dualatmattime.
TheirⅣerse
an
e髓cts
achievedby
inpu匕thegreatert11erclevanceoftheinputtot11eirldividualatttlat
e肋n
expandcd,tllelo、Ⅳerthe
correl撕on
ofe丘brta11dreleVallce
helps
us
torealize
matmeprocessing
e丘brtneededtoderiVecontexnlaleffbctsisofcmcialimponance.Ifprocessingeabrtwere
nottakeninto
accoum,humanbeingswould
t0
conti肌e
toprocessanewlyreceivedStimulus
are
endlessly.However,according
mostrelevarltpossible
one
wilson(1998),speakersnotalwaysexpectedtogiveme
inf0肌ation,or
topresentitintheleaste丘brt—demandingwayOnthe
side,thespeakcrmaynothavethein|'0Hnationmat伽ehearerwomdfindmostreleVant;
or
hcmaybe
uHwillingto百vcit,or咖ablet0nlinkofitatthe缸le.Onmeother
or
side,1ackof
time,1ackofabilitymosteconomicalstill
not
stylisticpreferencesmaypreventtllespeakerexpressinghimselfinthe
mostrelevantutterancethespedker
call
way.Wh砒ismorc,thethi“kofmay
be
relev锄t
enoughtobewomltllehearer’sattention,ThismeallsitisoptiInal
rclevancet11att11ehearerseeks,arldnottIlcmaximalrelevance,inthesearchofrelevance.Thenotionofoptimalrelevanceisexplairledint、Ⅳopremises:
Anostensivestimulusisoptimallyrelevantto
a.
a11
audierlceim
nisrclevamn
is
tlle
cnou曲tobe、vonh也e
relevant
one
audience’sprocessingefrort;
wim
b.most
compatible
communicator’sabil“ies
and
preferences.
According
to(a),the
hearerisentiuedtoexpectmeostensivestimlllust0beatleastrcleV如t
enoughtobewonhprocessing.Accordingentitledto
even
to(b),t11e
hearerof
an
ostensiVestimulusis
higherexpectationsthaJlthis.ThespeakerwantStobcunderstood.nis
as
thereforeinherinteresttOmakeh盯oStensivestimulusunderstand.Inotherwords,inostensive—infbrentialcommullicatestllestimulushe
uses
easy
as
possibleforthchearerto
speakernecessarily
co删叭商cation,the
What
isrelevantto也eheareLisconlmⅧ=1icatedtotbebest
ofthecommunicator’sl(110wledgeisthattlleostensivcstimulusisreleVantWonh
the
he盯er’s
attention.
Finally,
as
enou曲to
second,
be
or
Sperberfollows:
and
Wilson
definethe
commutlicative,PrincipleofRelevance
communicative
PrincipleofRelevance
a
Everyostensivestimulusconveys
Thisprincipleistheconsequenceofgeneralclaim
a
presumptionofitsownoptimalreleVance.
moregeneralclaimabouthumancognition.T11ismore
is肿wcalledme
First,orCognitivePrinciple:
12
CognitivePrincipIeofReleVance
HumancognitiontendstobegearedtothemaximizationofreleVance.
Anostensivestimulusisdesignedtoanractthehearer’sattemion.GiventheCognitivePrincipleofRelevance,humanbeings’tendencytomaximizerelevatlce,ⅡlecommuIlicatormereforee11couragesherhearerto
pres啪e
matitisreleVantenoughtobewofthprocessing.
Thisisthebasisforttlesecond,orCommunicative,PrincipleofRelevaIlce,whichappliesspecifically
to
ostensive-inferentialcommunication.FromthcCommunicativePrincipleof
a
Relevance,wegetthemntmat也eeXpectationthatitisalso
hearerisentitledtogoaheadandimerprctanyutcerallcein
CognjtivePrincipIeofRelevallceis
optimallyrelevant.Howev%the
import趾t,since
it
achowledges
mefactthathuman
co印ition
isorielltcdtowardsthe
highestpossiblereleVancewIlenprocessinginputs.
Ingeneml,Sperberand
Wilson(1986)claim也atme附ncipleofRelevallceisadequate
enoughinitsowntoexplainhowlir培uisticme锄ingandcontextualfactorsintcractto
dete肌me
utterallce
int唧怫tation
aII
or
verbalcoInprcllension.Panicularly,thespeakcr
canllse
thelinguisticfornlofbetWeeIlimonational
u舵r姐ce
to
guide
the
interp瞅ationprocess;just
as
thenaturallinks
stnlctIlre趾d
pragmatic
eeftainpropertiesofconteXta11dcontextIlaltheoretical
apprOach
can
iHh却fetatioll,Soalangllagemightdevelope艉cts.InthissenSe,thcrelevance-based
cenain
linguistic
elemems
arise
in
eXplainwhy
andhow
communication,disclosingthespeaker’scoⅡmmnicativeimentionsa11dguidingt11ehearer’sinterpretationofherunerances.Panicul盯ly'the
ReleVanceTheory
as
provides
a
general
explanationofwhatnon-臼1nh-conditionalelements,suchAnothcrcmcialissuethathas
a
DMs,aredoingindiscourse.
prominentroleinmereleVance-meoreticaccountofutterance
interpretationa11dDMsiscontext、vhichisdiffbrem行om也e打aditiorIalconception.
3.4ReIevance-basedContext
As
a
topicof擎eatsignificallce,contexthaslongbeenthefocusin
as
a
numberof
diSciplines,such
sch01ars
phiioSophy,logic,soci01ing伍stics,sem趾ticsandpragmatics.Many
havecontributed
includingMalinowski,FirthHalliday,Hymes,Lyons,LeVinson
are
greatlytomestudyof也econtext,whoseViews
generallycategorizedintothe订aditional
Viewsofcontext.Althou曲metraditionalcontextcontainsis
a讯dcrallge
ofi11咎ediems,which
are
adV趾tageousinhcIpingme
hearer埘th
lliscomprehensionofcoInmunication,t11ere
fatallim“ationsinthenotionofme打aditionalconteXt.Accordingt0thetraditionalviews,
contextisconsideredas也e
objective“out
or
there”or
h啪an’s
l(Ilowledgcwhichisnearly
all—includedandisdetem五ned
giveninadvanceofthecommunieationprocess.Asthe
to
modemmeoryofcommunicationdevelops,moreaIldmoreattentionhasbeenpaid
thattostudy也ecomextintenTlsofcommunicationis
1q
thefact
a
moree£’ectiveway.However,the
traditionalviewsofcontext,
madequate
inthe
explatlatorypower,cannotproVide
an
appropriateinterpretationofhowthecontextinnuencesthehearer’scommunicationprocess.
InordertodeveIop
a
di位rem
viewoftheconteXt,Sperbera11d
to
Wilson
proposethe
notionofcognitiVeenviromnent.According
mcm,humatlbeings
are
engagedinacquiring
infonnationf如mt11eoutsideworldandconstructiIlgbestpossiblemeⅡtalrepresentationofitforthewholelife,whichthencomposesthe
co印itive
enviromentof
a11
individuaLDueto
di艉remphysical
infe∞nceandSperberand
a.
enviro啪e址s
and
panicul州ydi行crentcognitiveabilities(perce砸on,
one
rnemory,etc),cog王litive
definemecogIlitivc
en“ronmemsofindividualsdi矗hf如mano山eL
Wilson
env曲nmem
a
as
f0110ws:
A岛ctismaIIifeSttoaniⅡdividualatthattimeofr印托sentingitprobablytrue.
giventimeifandonlyifheiscapableat
as
mentallyandacceptingitsrcpresentation
tnje
or
b.
Acogmtive
enviromentofan
individualis
a
set
offktsthat
are
manifesttohim.
(SperberaIldWilson,1995)
Anindividual’stotalcogn“iVeenvironmentismesetofalltlleassuInptionsthatheperceive
or
can
infer:alltheassumptionsmat
or
are
malli&sttohinl.T0be瑚anifestistobe
notionofmaIlifestnessis
a
perceptibleinferablewithoutbeing
ir啦ediatcly烈si丘ed.The
cogtlmve
ma拄erofdegree,weakerthaIlk珏owlcdgeandaSsumptioninsense.Any
assumption,whetkr
tme
or
false,maybe
mallifestin
a
envir0脚ent
if也eenVironrnemproVides
s试cientevidenceforitsadoption.Itconsistsofnotolllyalltheassumptiollsmatheisaware
oe
butalsoa11lheassumptionsmatheiscapableofbecomingawareoeinhisphysical
one
enviroment.In
asSumptions
are
word,manifestnessis
a
superordinatenotiontowhichknowled_gcaⅡd
bom
subject.
Then,on血ebasisofmeofcontext:itis
a
co弘iti:veenvironmcnt,SperberaIld
WilSondeVeloptlleirView
psychologicaleonstnlct,asubsctoftheheawr’seog加tiveenviro]嘲ent。Itis
theseassumptions
aII
rathcr饥眦theactIlal
statesofthcwodd,whichaffecttheimerpretationof
as
unerance.Inmissense,comeXthereisnottreatedofmore
or
giVencommon掣olmd,butrather
are
as
a
set
1essaccessibleitemsofinf.0nnationwhich
or
storedin
short—tem
a
and
encycIopedicmemoriesnotionmat
can
ma血festi11theph”icalenvimnment.Socontextis
Very、vide
include矗rlyphenomenonentertailledbymehumanmind,rangingf幻m
a
encyclopedicknowledge,physicalconteXt,t0linguisticcontext.Thesefktorsdetenninenotsinglecontextbut
a
rangeofpossiblecontexts.Aswe
can
see,tllecontextisconsjdered
as
parcoft11ecognjtiveenvironment,whichisinunediatclyemployedineachinterpre.【ation.Therefore,thecognitiveenVironrnentproVides
a
potcntialrangeofcontexts.Thehearer
choosesthecontextualaSsumptionsfromhiscogflitiveenvironmentforhisinterpretationof
utteratlces
incommllllication.These
can
assumptions
as
are
stored
Therefore,thecomext
bcclassified
follows
20
iIl觚s
inttlreepansofmemory.
ofmemorysources.Firstly,the
physicalcontext.Here,mephysicalcontext
asc锄otbeconsideredast11eobjective“outthere”orinnletraditional也eoryofthecontext.Actually,tbephysicalworldhasbeencognized
byaninteI_Il“zedindividualandbecomessomeassumptionsofhiscognitiveenvirolllllent.
Secondly'theco—tem.Alltheassumptionsrcma洫ingintheshon—te玎nmemoryinthecommunicationpmcessconlposet11eco—text.Th砷ly’meknowledgestnlcture.IncDmmunication,tllehearel‘谢Uemployassumptions舶mhisknowledgestmctllreinthe
canlon分teHnⅡ蛤moryforhisintefp豫镪tionQf
besub—classifiedimothree
coQmtivecomextisshownasu琏efances.Genera王ly,theknowledges饷ctureandtypes:lo西calent彤lexicale曲yf.oHows:encycl叩edicemryThe
FigurelCIassi矗cationofContext
Witmnthetraditionalvlewsofthecontext.1ttendstolistallsonsofthecomextIlal
aingredientsrclatedtothecommunicationevems,motherwords,廿lecontextisgiven.As
result,thecontextanalysisisdimculttobemanagedinactualapplication.Incon仃ast,SperberaIldWilsonconsiderthecontextassele☆d矗om
0nemeto协lcallcog凼veen、,iromentforeachcommunicationprocess.Inmisway,onthe
contextual协gredientswhilefocusing
theotherhand,mespeakerandonhalld、veavoidt11econfIlsingofcomplexthecontextselectionprocessesinhurnan’smind.Onactiverolesinhca删?playcoⅡ皿llllication.The
caIlspeakcrcanempIoysomememodstoguidecommu血cationandhearerchooseassumptionsforhis
interpretation.ThereleVance-basedcontextisdynamicinsteadofbeingstatic.
HoweVer,this
Accordingt0poses柚otherandquestion:whatistheprincipleforthechoiceof廿1econtext?selectionofaSpe她rWilson,也epanicularcontextatagiventimeisdeteHninedbythesearchforrelevaIlce.Thechoiceofthecontextisgovemedbytheprincipleofoptimalrelevance.Ont量leone}珊d,thespedker’sutteranceshouldbearsomerelevancetotheheareranditis恤emostreIevantonemathecanmake;ontlleotherhand,thehearershouldmakesomee丘’orttoachieveenoughcognitiveefrectandhisefrortshouldnotbeunjustmable.
To
contextssurnup,the厅锄e、vorkofReleVanceTheorydistinguishesⅡ1epotentialrangeofandthecontextactuallyemployedineachimerpretationprocess:thecognitive2l
enviromTIentandtheco譬nitivecontext.Wit场n如efclevance-baSedcontext,weconsiderationofnumerousandcomDlicatedcontextualassumptionsaccessone’scanavoidthefactorsbutfocusonhowlimitedmindtoformtheconteXtfortheinterpretation.Moreover,the
orrelevance_basedcontextisdvnaIIlic.Thecomextisnotdeternlinedgiveninadvanceof
commu血cationbutchosenintllepmcessofcommunication.ChoosingthecontextuaJass啪ptionsisguidedbytheoptiIIlalrcleVance.
CHAPTERFoUR
CDMs
andUtteranceInterpretation
4.1CognitiVe
Mo娃yatio珏forEmployingCDMs
theo强we
arriveattheconclusionthat
With
thesupportofmefhme、ⅣorkofRelevaIlce
humancommunicationf01lowsthegeneralprinciplethatthespeakeral、vaysautomaticallydesirestoproduceuttcranceswhich
can
call
yieldadequatecontextual
an
e疵cls,so
thatthehearer
paytlleleastprocessing
e晒rt
a11dselect
appropriateassllr]叩tiontoacllievethe
cognitiVeeffbctswheninterpretingt11eutterance.Socommunicationalwaysinvolvesbonlthespeaker’sa11dthehearer’sinf0玎nationprocesscs.Spcrbcrand
as
an
Wilson
regardcommu茄cation
an
ostensive—i《宅rentialprocess、Frommes弦akcr’spoilltofview,communicationis
overt-demonstrativeprocess.Byseemrelevallttothe
he渊andhenceiswonhthehearer’sattention
a
producing姐ostensivestimulus,thespeakermustmakeit
top1?ocessit.Fromme
hearer’spointofview,communicationis
coven-demonstrative—inferentialprocess.The
to
hea阳ronlyattendstomeostensivestimulusthatisrclevantmostreleVant
llima11dtcndstoconstructme
ass啪ptions
aIldpmcessesinmisconteXt.Inomerwords,thehearerisentitled
tointerpreteVeryutterancemmesmallestaIldmostaccessiblecontextthat
manifestlyyields
adequatecontextuald话cts.Ifthesp。aker淅sks亡0constrainthein伦中rec鲥onthehearer
a
recovers,hemustcon蛐rainⅡlehearer’schoiceofcontext.As
result,me
use
ofDMsis
n咖rally
expected.Aspea:ker,byusing
a
DM,mdicateshowmsuneranceistobeimerprcted
aS咒leVaIlt,a11dthehearerisforcedtosupplypanicularcontcxtualassumptionsinordertointerprettheregarded
aS
utteraIlce
in
accordance谢m
on
themeaningof5uch
a
DM.Therefore,DMs
are
constraimsimposed
unemceproductionandinterpretation.
req_Lliredby
thehcarerto
recover
HoweVer,contextualinterpretation
are
ass啪ptions
canare
theutterancejmmediately
d{珏曲ent涵出g毫糟mcases.Somecontex敏硪la豁umptions
are
accessibletothehearerwho
cases
perceive妣diⅡfcrwithOutmuche丘bn,、vhjleinsomeother
contextualassumptions
comp删VelycoIrlplexaIldrequiretllehearer’smuchmore
a
inferentialabilityandcontextuali础Iomlation.Ifthespeakerbelievesthatthehearersharesmemucualcogn“iVe
enviro姗ent
wi也him缸讨thehearerisabktoprocess
bemorcfketoproduce
all
cenain
uttera∞e
埘thouttal(ingmuche肋n,he、Ⅳill
(20)a.we
utterance.Forexample:
were1ateinleavinghome.
pulledou垃ofthestation.
b.Whenwe洲ved,the拓ainhadbeen
ThehearermayflnditeasytouIlderstandmesequence
in(20),eventhou出there
is
n0
DM
Jo
to
signal
theutteraJlce
inteIpretation
routc.Thereis
one
approp“ately
bethe
possjble
cause
interpretationofthemeaningrelationsbe啉∞n(20a)and(20”.(20a)may
of
(20b)and(20b)maybet11eresultof(20a).ARerfollowingn”109icaldeduction,the
hearer
maychoosetheaSsumptionmatbecausewewerelateinleaVinghome,wedidnotcatchme廿ain.Phenomenathattherelationshjpisimplicatedandvvinloutthehelpofa11ylingllisticdevicethecontextualassumptionsavailable
are
caIl
beinfb玎edbytIlehearereasily
commoninEn91ishaIldotherlanguages.Since
or
are
limitedinnumber,thespeakermay
maynot
constrainmeu【teranceinterpretationbyDMs,
Incontrast,forsomeune曙nces,mereis
a
rangeofpossibleconteXtsajldpossible
setofcontextIlalassuInptionsduring
implicatllres.Forthe
derivationishearerto
hearer,selecting
an印propriate
di舔cuh诵thout
theis
ce^ainDMs.CDMsbelongtothis伊oupw11ichf.acilitatethe
lesspmcessingefrort.Lookatthefollowingexanlple:
ishonest.
recover
infomlation埘Ⅱl
a
(21)(a).Jo}mpoliticiall.(b).He
1hehearer’scontextualassumptionsmayinclude:
c.A11ofpoliticiansd.Johnis
one
are
honest.
ofp01itic洫s,soheishonest.
are
e.Allofpoliticialls£Johnis
one
dishonest.
ofpolilic主ans,buthe主S
a
a工l铽ception
andhonest.
g.Beingapoliticianis011lyh.Jollllworks
asa
profession.nhasnothingtodowithhonesty.
processes
a
p01mcian.Moreover,hc
are
personal时ofhones吼
hearerwillbringto
on
Thecontextualassurnptions
are
notlistedexhauStivelyhere,Ifmespeakerandthehearer
notsurewhetllermeysharethemutIlalcognitive
so
enviro岫ent,the
bear
manycontextualassurnptionswithoutthehelpofthespeaker’sconstraim
the
utterallce
intemret撕on鲫d
itwillseemimpossibletoacmeVethcgoalofcommunicationand
doesnotmeetthefeqllirememthathumanslookforrelevantinfom’ationintheircogn越VeenvironmemfortheleastprocessingintendedmeaIlingoft11espeakeLInfastand
s0
e肺rt.And
thehearerisindangertomisullderstalldthe
inteIpretationtakesplace
recoVer
so
comm吼ication,unerance
usually
are
spontalleouslyⅡlat
rarely
conunu11icators
notawareofhowt11ey
or
thc
messages.Ahearer
spendsdays,let“one
months
years,working
out
tk
interDretationsofanutterance.Heconsciouslydesirestominimize
the唧oⅢofprocessing
hearer’schoiceof
accessible.In
e舶rtrequiredfort11erecoveryofrelev趾tiⅢb瑚ation.Consequently,thc
co印mVe
hvDothesisandtllis
case,even
evidence埘ll
berestrictedtothe
o鹏s也at缸emostiIrⅡnediately
ifthespeakeraIldmehearcrsharetllemutual
enVironrnentwhichis
seemto
alsot11ecommonsellseintheirsocietymatpol憾cians甜edishonest,segmeIn(b)will
beillo画calandmake
nosense
because
on
thebasisofthePrincipleofReleVallce,thehearer
willcosttheIeasteffortaIld
just
infrernatufallythatsegment(b)istheconclusionofsegment
a
(a).Incontrast,ifmespeakerpmvidesthehearer谢th
24
CDMsuchas“but”tointroduce
(2lb),theimmediatelyaccessiblecontextllalass砌ptionsof(21e)and(21f)areaVa订ablewhichwillinstructt11ehearertomeintendcdinterpretation.
Tos啪uAforanyutterance、Ⅳjmtwosegmentsin
notcontr剃verelationship,、vithoutthemakesense.EVenthoughat(heend
areinstructionofCDMs,itseemstobeillogic“anddoesofprocessing,thehearera盯ivesattheconclusionnlatthesegInentsincontrastiVe
relationshipa11dgainstheimendedutteranceimerprcta_tion,Ⅱ1eprocessingefrortrequiredfor!hese锄inglyillogicaldeductionismuchmo碍manthepr。c锚sing
the丘arneworkofRelevaIlcee踟^f.orthe!ogicalwhowantsdeduction.Accordingto
communicationtotheory,thespeakercaIlsucceedmustgu觚mteetllatthehearerrecovertheoptimallyrelevant
communication,whentheinterpretationattheleastprocessingeⅡ.o九,Soinlinguistic
uttefancehastwosegfrlentsincontrastherelationship,mespeakerusuallyemploysCDMssuchas6砒矗owPvec聊wr珐P如踺a砌ozt曲,to
soconstrain血ehearer’sinferentialabili埙backgroundkIlowledgealldfbnhtom.mimizetomegreatestextentthehearel‘’sprocessing
e行.orlinutteranceinte印fetation.
CDMs,asapanicmar铲oupofDMs,seemtobeofgreatsigni丘canceinmeprocessofpmductionandirlte叩rctationofunerances.But、vhatisttlepropertythatmakesCDMscmcialin眦eranceinterpTetation?InmefoIlowingse嘶on,we“llmakeattemmstoexploreCDMs’speciaIcharacte—sticsf砧mmecognitive—pragmaticpefspectiVe.
4.2CDMswithPmcedural
asInformationfirststudiedbyGricein11isailalysisoftheCDMssuch6她一eVe舶gJhs、vere
non-mltllconditionalmealling,in山ef和eofmeat七emptsbytheordinarylanguagephilosopherstoshowt11atthesemarIticsfornaturallallgllagecollldnotbebasedonthesemaIlticsofan洒ciallogicallanguages.Onthebasis0fnlesPeechacttheoreticdislinclionbecweendescribingaIldindicating,Griceputforwardthedistinctionbd、他enCemralGrollnd-n00rspeechactperfonnedby
actaIlorunerance,aIldNon-ce曲融orHi曲er_levclspeechcommunicatedbyDMslike6峨∞、ⅣhichcommeminsomewayontheimerpretaIjonofthecentraIspeechact.rntheexanlple,
(22)1'0mishere,6whehasfo唱ottenllis协11npet.
Thespeakerperflomsaground-noorstatement也atTbmishcrcandmathchasforgottenhiscalculator,a11dat也esametime,t11er01eof6埘istosignalthepcdb衄anceofthisnon-centralspeechactbywhichcontrastiverelationShipbenⅣeentlletwosegmentsisdrawn.Inthisw£Iy,GricedistinguishedWHATISSmDⅥ柚chisrestrictedtothepropositionaltrumconditionalcontentfromWhatisCONVENTIONALLY
theperfoHnanceofaIMPLICATEDwhjchsignalsinfornlationaboutnon-tru出act(Grice,1989).
asIfanexpressionsuch6甜oro胛珐P
2SD腑gr胁州signalsmeperfb咖a11ceofa
non—centralspeechactillocutionaryforceand
act
as
Gricesaid,tllenthatSpeechact,likeallspeechacts,musthavepmpositionalcontent.n
an
a
se锄s
thatGricewouldsayⅡlatthespeech
such
as(22)haSthe
content
of(23),andhencethatiStheconventionalimplicaturecarried
by6以
(23)Thereis
a
contr嬲tbetweentllesta_tcmentmatTbmisherea11dthestatememthat
Tomhasfo玛onenhistrLlIllpet.
ButiftllisisIhecaSe,Ⅱlenitisnotclearwhattheforceoftheactis.Itcannotbet11eactofcomrastingsincemef如tt}lattIlercistheact.Perhapsthen
one
a
conⅡastisrepresentedbythcpropositionalcontentof
one
couldsaymattllis
lli曲er_level
by
actis
simply
aIl
actofcommenting.But
wouldhavetosaythatactssignaIed
6Ⅲareindividuatednot
bytheirilIocutionary
are
pmpertiesbutbytlleirpropositionalcoment.ThatwouldmearIthatmeseexpressions
a11alyzed
as
not
illocutionaDrforce,butare廿eated
as
indicatorsof
some“ng
propositional.Then
not
thequestioniswhatistllerelationshipbetween6村a11dthepropositionin(23).Foritisclearwhemerwhatisencodedby6z盯inthisencoded
act
pr叩osition
isinthe
s啪e
waythatwhatis
by“trumpet”or“forgo他n”inthepropositionalcontemofthcgroulld—noorspeech
see
pcrfo册edby(22).MorcoVer,as
a
wilSona11dsperber(1993)observe,“isdimcultto
a
how
Griceananalysiscouldaccount南rthe沁malu∞of6掰in(24)掣oducedby
seesa
smaller
teenageboywho
ia喀etcellagebullytabng
a
bicyciefromthebikerackatsch001.
(24)B讲that’sMYBIKE!
BoⅡlRjeber’sparendleticaltacitattemptsto
pe如rnlatiVeaIlalysis锄dBach’s
hplicature
IQ(indirectquotation)are
mod毋Grice’s
conVentional
aIlalysis.Butitseemsthatneitherof
themhavesucceededinfindingmeright衄ck
a
吨urnentationtheory(AT)is
such
as
non—cogIlitive,non—tnl血一conditionalsemantic血eory.h
isbestkno、Ⅵlforitsdetailedanalysisofexpressionswim
r∞n一弧th-conditional
meanin岛
6z矿AccordingtotheoriginalversionofA:『’utteraneesbavenotonly
inf0胁ational
deVelop
contem,butalsoargI】mentatiVeoriemation.ThisledAnscomberand
a
Ducrot(1989)to
theoryoflinguisticallyencoded
as
non枷m?conditional
mc砌ng.Wi“n“sfr锄ework,6m
istreated
utcerances
an
a咯umematiVeoperatorw量lichconstrainsmea唱umentat沁eoriemationofthe
thatcontain
it(Iten,2000).ItseemsmatAnscomberandDucmt}lavemoveda、Ⅳay
a
舶m趴analysis
inⅥrhichthcmeaningof6甜is
constitucntof
constraim
a
propositionwithnor“mthinte叩retation,Thjsmove
a
conditiontomeanalysisinwhichitisanalyzed
asaon
seemstobeintheright击rectjonalld也eiranalysisof6“aS
conStraint
a
onuse
is
so
insi曲t如1.
n
is
imponant
to
recogmze
thatAT
haS
led
tendency
from
the
non—tnJth—conditionalmeanjngtot11epragmaticconstraintanalysis.
Furthernlore,therelevancetheoreticdistinctionbetweenexplicatureandimplicaturemoVesawayf而mmespeechactmeoretictradition.AccordingtoSperbera11dWilso玛explicaturesof
an
utterance
are
nlose
ass啪ptionscoIn删Ilicatedby
批
me
uttemce
which
are
infbrentialdeVelopmentsof“slogicalderivedby
an
a
fom.Clearly,the
explicaturesof
anutterance
are
combinationoflinguisticdecodingandinfcrence.HoweVer,meimplicaturesof
uttemnce,unlikeexplicatures,areallmosepropositionscommunicatedbytll砒utterance
are
whichnot
inferentialdeVelopmentsofiIslogical
fo衄.Clearly,di舵rent
are
fromthe
explicaturesofanutterance,theimplicatIlresofaIl嘣erancenisderivedinthat
a11
derived
entirely
inferentially.
inf宅renceinw王lich廿leexplicatureis
one
ofpremises.Thismakesitpossible
lingujsticallyencodedinformationmaycontributetotheifltcrpretationprocessei出erby
a
infomlingpartofdecodedconceptualrepresemation
or
byproviding
on
infomation
on
the
ma主1ipulationofconceptual19961,
In
the
r印resentation,e.g.by
o仃eringguidallceinference(Blakemore
relevaIlce-meoretic
on
fi锄ework,CDMs
encode
proceduraI
infomation,i.e.
洫fonnation
howtomaIlipulate,howto“take’’aconceptualrepresentationratherthail
bearingconVentionalinlplicature.AswhowOuldhaVe
in(22),6埘constrains恤einterpretationofthehearcr
conti删ed
t11econtextual
ass啪ption
co驴itive
thatTombfingst11etnlmpetwith
h血
sinceheishere.ThedistinctionbetweenprocedumlmeaIlinga11ddesignedtorenectcomputation.Asconceptual
a
conc印tualmeallingis
more‰daInen协l
meaningfits
distmctionbe_【weenrepresentationandthatthcrccognitionoft、vo
the
typesof
view:
Wilson&sperbcr(1993)note
aIldproceduraI
an
ve叮weII晰th
reIevance-theoretic
corIlrnunicationist11is
process
essentiallyinferemialprocess.Liilguisticdecodingprovidest}lcinputforsllrely
involves
tlle
which
cons仇lctionand
manipulation
ofmental
representations.ThereforeitistobeeXpectedt11atlinguiSticcxprcssionsmayencodet、vo
typesofmfomlation:infomationwllichcoIl仃ibutesdircctly
totlle
cons帆Jctionofconceptual
representations,i.e.conc印ts,a11d
iIlfbmation
distinction
on
howtomallipulatethese
conc印tual
representations,i.e.pmcedurals.ThedistinctionbetweenconceptualmeaningandproceduralmeaIling
does
not
equa王
thebetⅥ,eentruth.conditionaIadverbials
such
as
mealling
and
non-nlnh-conditionalmeaIling.For‘seriously’aretr℃ated
as
ex锄ple,sentence
‘frankly’and
non—tmth—conditionalbutmeyencodeconceptualmeaning,、vhile
CDMs,asnon-tmtll-conditional,encodethepmceduralmeallingbec肌setheymallipulatethe
mentalrepresentationa11dconstrain恤einf色rentialroute.Ithasbeena唱uedbySperberaIld
wilson(1993)aIldCarston(2002)thatthegapbetweenl证guisticallyencodedmeaningand
truth—conditionalcontentmeansmatlinguisticdecodingdoesnotdelivcrrepresentationswim
tmth-condition,butconceptualrepresentationswhich
are
developed
bypragmaticinference
semanticsisnot
intorepresemationswithtnJⅡlconditions.Thjssuggeststhatlinguistic
concemedwithmerclationbet、vcenlinguistic
relationbetweenelementsoflinguistic
fo珊aIld
tlleextemalworldbutwiⅡ1the
f0肿and
thecognitive
a
info珊ation
theyencode.In
to
thissense,thequestionthatmat【ersisnotwhetIler
linguisticexpressioncontributes
truth
conditionsbutratherwhat姑ndofcogllitiveinfbnnationit
27
encodes—conc印tual
or
procedural.
Thcdistinctionbetweenproceduralmeaningandconceptualmeallingbearing
on
call
haveimportam
thefutlⅡeofDMresearch.
OnmereleVancevieW,utteraIlceinterpretationis1argelyaniⅢbrentialprocesswhichconsistsofforr]ningandevaluatinghypomesesaboutwl】atthespeakerimendslocommuIlicate
CDMsencodingproceduralinf0肌ationrestrictmenurnber
an
ofhypothesesthehearerneedsto
considerinordertoarriveat
opt洫allyrelevantinterpretation,thusfacilitateboththe
speaker’sandthehearer’staskHowever,ourresearchgoalisnotjusttodiscoverthatCDMseIlcodetlleproceduralmeanillgaIldconstraintheimplicaturesof
wemustfindoutwhatkindofprocedural
an
unerance.Fun上lemlore,
infbⅢlationCDMs
encodeandwha【rolemis
be
proceduralinfornlationplayinthe
comm哪ication.In
theneXtsection,CDMswill
on
our
analyzedintemlsofcontextuale强∞ts,whichmayshedlightmeaningofCDMs,
researchofpmcedural
4.3
CDMs
IntroducingContradictionandElimination
leamedfromt11eanalysesabovethatRelevancetheoryclaims
a
Aswehave
h啪肌
speaker
co髓itionisgearedtothema)【imizationofrelcvallce.Ahearerwhorecognizesthat
hasmadeherintentiontoconveyinformationmanifeStisentitledtoassumethatthcspeal(erismaI【ing
a11
optimallyrelevant
no
unemce
andthehearerhimself
canrecovcr
theimended
me猫ng
ofthespeakerfor
unjustmablee胁rt.Thisjust
pmVestllefac“hattheexistence
ofCDMsiscognjtivelymotivated.Anutteranceachievesrelevanceifa11donlyifitobtainscenaincognitive
e‰ct
on
thebasisofthehearef7scon托。(tual
efrects
can
ass啪ptiorIs.According
to
Sperber锄dWilson.contextual
beclassifiedinteⅡnsofthekindofinferential
is
processesinv01ved、Ⅳhennewlypresented
infb蛐ation
bmughttogether、viththeexisting
info肌ation,by
strengmening
an
existingassllⅡlption,by
an
con仰dictingaJldeliminating
a
aIl
existingassumption,orby
combining丽th
one
existingassumptiontoyield
whosemeallings
in
are
comextual
implication.Itdoesseem血atcognitive
cafl
identi旬DMs
1ir出edtothese
f01low啦ex锄ples:
(25)(a).Bencan。penT。m’ss哦.(b)孝P,蛾heknows妇combination,
e恐cts.Considcrthc缸lctionsof妒Prd,fand占D
(26)(a).Benc姐opcnT0m’s
s小.(b)&he
knowsthecombmation.
Aswe
an
caIl
see,me
uSe
of
DM斫Pr口口in(25)indic砒es
that也ehearerisexpected
tofolloW
infcrcntialmuteinwhichthepropositionexpressedbysegmem(b)is
spca:kcr
a
premisefortheindicatingthat
deductionoftheproposmonexprcssedbysegmem(a).Thc
an
of(25)is
segment(b)is
aim
relevalltbyvircueofstren甜hening
to
existing
ass啪ption.Inother、vords,the
to
of矽口,口,¨smcreaset11es仃engthofmehearer’scommitIllent
comrast,the
uSe
theassufnption
theheareris
conveyedinthe
se舯ent(a).In
an
ofDM
so
in(26)indicatesthat
expectedtof01low
inferentialmuteinw11ichthepropositionexpressedbysegment(b)is
2R
meconclusionderived疗DmtheprDpositionexpressedbyindicatingmat
segrnent(a).The
speaker
of(26)is
segment(b)is
just
relevantbyVirtueofbeing
not
a
comextualimplication.
are
TheanalysissketchedsuggeSts0111ythatthemea血ngsofDMs
1jnkedto
cognitiveefrects,butmoreparticularlymattheydirectlyencode也etypesofcognitiVeefkctintended.111thisway’itispossibleforllstodiscoVermetypeofcognmVeefrectmeCDM6讲encodes。
(27)Tomiskre,6撕hehasf-orgottenhistmmpet.
an
InthisexaIIlple,thespeakerassumesthattllehearerhasderived
assllInpfion
asa
contextual
an
implicationf如mthefirstsegment.Inomerwords,thehearerhasbeenexpectedtoderive
assumption(28)f而mt11eprecedingsegment廿1atTbmishere.
(28)Hebringst11etrumpet丽tIl11im.
However,t11isderivedassurnptionisinconsistenc拶vvimmesegment6埘introducesnlathehaS
f0玛ot【enhistru瑚pet.Byusing6砧thespeakerintcnds
speaker
todenytheassumption(28)which
the
thou曲t
tllehearerwollldhavejnteIpretedfbmtheprecedingsegmem.Andthe
hearerwillhavetoabandon也e
exiStiI培ass啪ptionsothat
can
mecontradictionbetweentllenew
infbmation
andtheoId
an
iⅡf0姗ation
beso王ved.Ihmiscase.6“f向nctionstocontradict
andelimillate
assumptionpresuInedtohavebeen
d茚ved
or
wesaymademanifesttobom
us
mespeakerandthehearerbymeprccedingsegment.Letcontaining
consideranotherexamplefltoⅡlerCDMs.
CDM鲫舭DmPr胁蒯to
coIlld
see
Whemertheanalysis
can
(29)IgotothemoViestonigllt.0n
meotllcrhand,IcouldstayathomeaIldwatch
TV.
In
t11isexample,aRer
he撕ng
t11e
firstut【erance,me
hearer
mi曲t
have
reachedthe
to
assumptionmattllereisonly
moviesandtherecontextuaI
areno
one
choicefortheSpeaker,thatis,hecouldonlygo
use
the
otberahernatives.Yet.theofD疗珐P
D所Pr妇胛d
consn丑insme
assumptionsandindicatesthat血esegmentitin廿c|ducesthatthespeakeralsocouId
stayathomea11dwatchTViscontextIlalme
inconsistcnt埘m也e
assumptionthehearerhasderivcd
asa
implication舶mthefirstuneraulce.Thccxpressiono胛砌P
o捕Pr向册d
contradicts
ass啪ptionderived丘omthe血巩andthuslcadingto
T0
s咖耐ze,both扫w
ttle血fIo珊ation
arc
itselimination.
beanalyzed
as
in(27)and
D竹腩B
D砌口r|b册din(29)can
an
encoding
thatthehearerisiIltendedtofollow
a
infe吲ntia|routewhichends
isjusttheprocedural
int王lecontradictionaIldelinlina蛀onofinfornlationwe
searchjngforCDMs.
e仃ectsallow
contextual
ass啪ption.This
Ⅵ惴Ie
the
co印itiVe
usto
distinguishthreebroadcatcgories
aboVea11,faci王itate
us
ofDMs
correspondingtothetypesofcogllitive
e腩cts粗d
us
tofixtheprocedural
inf0HnationofCDMs,theydonotallowtodrawaIlyexplallationforthe
acc印tability
of
repIacementof6甜foralrnostaIlCDMs,norprovidethesubtledistinctionsbetweenthemcaIlingsofthe
di船rem
expressions血atfauinto
29
me缸nilyofcDMs.Inthefollowing
section,based
on
theanalysiswehavemadeabove,I丽llmakeattemptstoanalyzethe
tonndoutwhatmakes6埘diabrem
typicalCDM6“fintermsofpmcedu豫lmeaning,andtry
fromotllerCDMsanddmwsomesubtledistinctionscarulotbeexplainedbytraditionaIapproaches.
b帅een
6埘andotherCDMs,which
4.4ProceduraIAnalysisof6Ⅳf
Sof缸6甜hasbeenconside咒d
as
themostubiquitouSandgeneraiofCDMsandisaIso
P
t11emostcomplicated.Traditiorlally,theexpressionof6甜Q
caIl
begiVen
a
rangeof
interpretations.MoStofthe1“erature
on
6甜recogIlizessomeunitary
uses
likecontrast,deIlialofofthemeaningof6Ⅳ,,
uses
expectation,comction
mleinactivating
and
and
o毯ection.Aprocedu同account
whichiswhatIamaimingat,needst0showhowtoaccommodateallⅡ1ese
aIl
of6埘inits
inferemialroutewIlichislinkedt0mecognitiVee丘bctofcontmdiction
flne一掣aineddistinctionsinmeaningbctween6们and
elimination.Funlle珊ore,sOme
CDMs
are
other
expectedtobe
c印tu阳d.
4.4.1DenialofExpectation
Firstly,let’scomebacktotllenotoriousexaIllplewhichiswidelyrecognizedaS也e‘denialofexpectation’use.
(30)John
is
8
p01itician,6“fheishonest.
Indenialuse,theideais
mat廿le觚se笋nent(Johnis
withmeproceduraj
a
politician)implies
someconclusionis
(Jolm
isdishonest)whichis血endeIliedbymesegmentintroducedby6斫(hehonest).This
introducing
a
explanacionpafcIycorresponds
i廊rmation
ofCDMs
contradictionandelimination.Illthiscase,to8ay6“meaIIsdemalistosaythatitencodesconstraint
that
triggers
an
infbrentialrouteirⅣolvingcon托ldictingaIldeliminatmg觚
andeliminated
assumptionwhichisexpectedbymeheareLH盯eme
ass啪ptioncontra出cted
as
by
6耐is
pres啪ed
tobemaIlifesttothehearet
Whcnhe撕ngt11e、Ⅳord‘politician’,mehearer
tobearsuch
mighthavebmughtmanycontextIlalassmrlptions
p01iticiansbeingeloquent
reason
aIldinstigating,giRedingiVingpublicspeech,etc,but恤espeakerhas
tobelieVemat
出echarac据risticsofbeingdishoneStscemstobemu£凇1lymartifes“oboththespeakerandⅡlehearefintheircultur。e.Inthiscase,theassumptionbeingcontradictedandeliminatedisderived矗omtheprcceding
se舯ent.However,notallmeassum砸ons
newinfomlationarederived抒omtheimmediateprecedingunemce.
Thef0110wing
inconsistem晰tll
the
ex锄ple
is
a
conversationbet、veentv∞friendsWho
are
talkingdboutme
weather:
(31)A:What、villthe
B:well,ithaS
sumly.
weatherbel龇廿lisMayh01iday?
be£n黼ily
w洫dy出eSedays,6讲f两mMayD镀y
it谢ji
beq滋te
30
HereB’s
use
o±6们canbet出∞n
as
evidenceofhisassumptlon也atAbelleVesmatthet}lesedays.Thlsthehearerisexpectedtogetthe
weamerhasbeeninferencein(32).
uniform也rou曲out
(32)a.Tllepost—May
itisreally
Dayweatller、villbe也esame
as
thepre?MayDayweameronlyif
windy
b.ThepoSt—MayDayweatherwillnotbeeXtremelywindy.c.Thereforo,theweatlleL
TMssuggests血atmeweatherwouldbethe
not
use
post.MayDaywea畦ler州】lnot
bethe
s锄eastllepre—MayDay
of6甜plays
a
roleint11eeIiminationof山eassumptiont11atthe
s锄ebeforeandafter
preceding
MayDay,HoweVer,tlliselimmatedaSs啪ptionis
of
deriVed
direc廿y舶m也e
a
se鲫em
6“^R弛er
itis
on
t11ebasisofme
questionAhasasked,naInely,thatme、Ⅳeatherthatthereis
is吼讧b衄throughoutthesedaysa11dhence
sin91ea11sw盯to11isqueStion.TheeXpectationofgetting
one粗swerisderived
矗omtheco-textinSteadofbe洒gderivedf幻mthe如哪edia士e
preceding
se黜ntof6甜f.
di髓rent
f幻mme
a
Anomercase(33)1istedbelowisstiUabout血eweathcr,bmis
ex锄ple
dbove.The
use
of6讲inthef0110wii鸩wea血crr印ortcomeXt、Ⅳi11beacceptableto
hearerWhokno、Ⅳs也at
B哂啦isnotoriousforitsw.md.
today'6埘Be巧i119hadli曲t丽nds.
all
(33)changchun
Inthjscase,the
was廿lc、Ⅳindiestcityinchina
aSsur印donbeingcontradictedisnot
asSumptiontllatChallgchllIland
Beijing
are
alike’butrather姐蠲sumptionthatBe蜀ing
is曲ariablythe试ndiestc时in
the
on
coullny.111emebasis4。4.2
eliminated够s1埘州on
is
one吐锄me
Speal(erpresumesisheldbyt11ehearer
ofaSslllllptionsheholdsabouttllehearer’sencyclopedicknowledge,
objection
AsshownaboVe,inmany
caSes
t王le
ass啪ption
whichthespeakerintends也ehe越crto
eIiminateisnotderiVed丘DmtheirlteIpretationOfmefirstbutissimply
aJl
segm%t
of恤e6甜utteranceatall,
assurnptionWhichmespeakerhas糟asont0believeismallifestoftheheareL
Theinitialuseof
6埘in(34)(r印eatcdherc)isthccase
a
collsidered
tal【mg
as
theobjection
use
of6甜f.
[AsmallerteenageboyAsees
largcteenage
bullyB
abicycle
f如mthebikerack
atschoola11d
shou_七s】
(34)B甜tllat’sMYBIKE!
The
case
showsthat也e印eakerAh髂theevidencefbrtheassunlptionheidbymeIargebully
Bthathehasme
rigllttot。出e
llse
A'sbicycie
a
awayandAis唧ectedtokc印siIent.nispossibIe
ass啪ption
being
fortheSpeal(erAtoelim主natiOninme
6埘as
meallsofactivatingt}lepmcedureofcontradictiOnand
unemce
whjchisnDtprecededbyaIlydiscourse.111e
use
contradictedandeliminatedbytlle
asa
of6甜hereisderivedf如mthephysicalcontextwhich,
constituentofcognjtiVecontext,we}lavementionedi11t11elastchapter.Here廿1e
cannotbe
physical
or
comextcollSidercd
as
me
dbjective“out也ere”but
31
havingbeencognized
irltemaIizedbythespeakerormehearera11dbecomessomeassumptionSofhiscogilitiveenvironmem.Whentheli砌eboyseessomeoneelsetakinghisbicycleaway,hehast11isinformationtransf0Hnedintopsycholo西calrepresentatio王1SaIldenteredtheshon—teIIIlmemorya11dconstructedt11econtextualass啪ptions也atthe1a喀ebullyBminkshehasmerighttotakethebicycleaway、vithout也epennissionofaIlyone.TheaSs唧ionismaIlifbsttobotll也eheareraIldme印eaker,w}1ichthespeal【erpresumes.The0_bjectionuseof6斫hereisjusttocontradictaIIdelirnina砖theaSsumptionderivedf如m也ephysicalcontextwhichismuCuallymaIlifeSt.Inconm埘,rleitller^DwPv已,nor玎Pvg,加8拓础isacceptableint11iscase:
(35)7王,0wPVP彬^kvPme如ssthat’sMYBIKE!
Theinitialuseof6wisableto1ink血e1堍1listiccontext、ⅣimmephysicaIcontcxtandsimultaneouslycontradicttheassuI】印tionderived丘DmtllephysicalconteXtso也at也ecommunicationcouldbepossible,whereaseimer^DweVPror即PVgr肪e搪时c锄ot.Altllou曲meycanactivatet圭lei耐bIentialrOutewIlichcanconstrainthe诚eranceinterpretationandresultsinthecon柏dictionandeli血nationofallassumption,tlleycannotactiVatethepamcmarcOgIlitivecontext:也ephysicalconteXtas6讲does.
4.4.3Correction
In(36),thesegmentintroducedby6“f‰ctionsasaso—caHedcorrectionofthenegatedassumption.
(36)She’snotmysisterb毗瑚【ymother.
Frommea11a1”esaboveⅥ忙lcnowthatthe鲫s啪ptionel础natedby6撕segmemin(36)onitscorreclioninterpretationmustbeone也atismadom越fest.Butwhatis也oaSsl瑚ptioncontradicted?Ifwec蛆findthisassumption,wec01lldmainta证meu11itaryaccountthat6“activates也emferentialDrocedwewhichre乳dtsin也econ把挝ictionaIldeliminationofamanjfestassumptiOn.Thefirstsegmentof6“fseemstoimplyaquestion,suchas曲¨,胁妇J舵7Thesegmentin们ducedby6wseemstoprovideaIlexplaIlation.Thisisnotthea11swerwewant.MaybewecallgetsomeeIllightementf椭thef01lowingex锄ple(37):
(37)1womdhavelikedtogoonaholidaythiswinter’6掰IcouldIllta娲rdit.(38)1wentonah01iday-
Theuseof6埘in(371谢11beunderstoodtojndicate血att11ehearershouldabandonfhcass砌ptionm(38).However’misass唧tionismanjfbstlyfalse.IntKscase,itseemsmatwb三lethespeakerpresumes也eeliIn恼atedas蚴ptiontobema血festlyf豇se,fofconsiderationinmecontext,t11isoneismostlikelytohaVeoccurTedtoⅡleheareras(38).Somespeakerwillassumethatt11eco玎ectionfb肋ofthenegatedsegmem,bothsem姐tica11dsyntactic,willbeaccessibletotllehcareLThatistosay’也enegativesentencemakesaccessible“spoSitivecoⅦnerpartwMchis也eassumptioncontradieteda11delimirlated.Asimilara11alysiscouldbegivenfor(36).BycontradictingandeIimmatingtheposi石VeassumptionwhichchaIlges丘omtheoriginalnegatjVe,me6”f_cl卸sestr_engtllenstlle32
conclusion(she’s
pmvides
aIl
notmy
sistcr)drawn
on
t11ebasisoftllefirstsegmentandsimultaneously
explanation.Inmiscase,theassllmptionishypomesizedtobederiVed丘omthe
a
linguisticstmcmrewhichispanofknowledgesm】d11remcog工1itiVecomext.
case
Neimer
^owPvP,nor玎ev已,胁P,已船canbeusedintheofcorrection.
mother.
andcorrection,theheareris
an
(39)?She’snot
Tb
suIIl
my
sister,^owev明锄everfkfessmy
up,inall
an
ex锄ples
invol“ng
dellial,objection
expectedtomake
inferen∞wMchreSuhsinthecontra【dictionandeIiminationof
ass眦ption.That
that
is,西甜encodestbe
s姗e
procedllreineachcase,andmeonly
di艉rcnce
is
in(30),meassumptionthatiscont聊iictedandeliminatedby6撕isderived丘Dmt11e
eliminated
precedillg
segment,in(31),廿1e
aSs啪ptionis
derivedfImmthe
co—text,in(33)t11e
eliminatedassumptionis
pres啪ed
tobepaItofthchearer’sencyclopedicl(110wledgeandin
(34)theobjection6甜isconsideredtocon讯ldicta11deliminatethemanif宅stassumptionwllich
isderivedf如mtllephysicalcontext,wIlileplays
a
in(36),thelinguisticstructureincognitiVecontext
r01eineliIIlinat.mgmeassumptionwhichismought幻bethepos主tiVe
fomofthefifst
segInent.The
routewhich
a11alysisaboveseemstosuggestt11at6甜doesnotonlyactivatetheinferemial
results协也econtradictionandeliminationofanassⅢnption,butalsores缸ctsthe
on
cogllitiVecontextwhichismanifbstbothtothespeakera11dmeheareLThercstrictioncognjtivccontextismadepossibIebyparticularCDMsarIdillthestudy,6埘cancommdictandeliminatethecontcxt,co-text,linguisticstructure
or
tlle
di豌rs
indegree.Asisdiscussed
ass啪ption
wmchisderived行omphysical
are
enc”10pedics仇lcturewtlich
t11esubclassesof
cognitivecontext.Soitispossibleto
contextisless
ass啦e
mattlleres埘ctionof6埘onthecognitive
on
t11aIl盟yCDMs.ne
100serestriction
thecogIlitivecontextmayprovide
can
an
explanationforthefhctthat6Ⅲis也emostgeneralCDMsand
uneraIlcesinwhichother
alwaysbeusedin
on
CDMs
are
acc印table.It
isthe
di腩rentrcstrictions
thepanicular
cognitivecontextsthatmembersi玎t}1eCDMs.
distinguish胁Ⅵ世垤,,珂ew,f船拓船aIld
6址even锄ong血ef-锄iiy
ChapterFiVe
Conclusion
5.1Researchconclusion
Researches
on
DMs,thou曲rich
on
and舶it砌,are胁舶m
di氐rem
opitlionsa11d
beinghomogeneousand
complete.Thcstudieswhichpmvesthat
DMshavebeendoneunder
more也an“ventyoVerlappinglabels,
di腩rem
researchershold
o虢r
di仃cremexplallations
ofthenatureofDMs.WekweidentifiedthreeperspectivesinmisstudyAdvocatesofthediscourse—coherence_basedperspectiveholdthatwhatDMscontributemosttodiscourseisestabIishingemphasizes
a
v撕ous
cohcrence
or
relationswhiIethe
gr煳atical—pragrnatic
perspective
the掣a咖atical
to
syntacticstatllsandpmpertiesofDMs.Noneofmempr0Vides
psychologicalexplanationforDMsiIlutt瞄aIlceproductiona11dintcrpretation.Compared
withthe
t、釉印projlchesDMs,tllereIevance.basedcogmtive—pragmaticapproachproVides
use
themoreconvincinga11dpromising丘ameworkforexplainingt11e
Ontheo让lef
0fDMs.
hand,谢lile
DMs
are
Iegarded矗Slinguisticde“ceswhichhelpthemehearerfromunnecessaryprocessingguiding
the
hearer’s
interpretation
spe幽暑r
all
achievetheoptimal
relevance鲫d
save
e娲rt,not
process
DMsmake
equal
contributions
are
in
m
communication.SomeDMssomeDMs,such
as
unmaI_kedand
su_bconsciousb
producedby也espeakerwhile
greatcontribmions
tot11e
CDMs,aree丘bctivemeansofmaHng
a
productionandinterpretationofu钍erances.CDMs,as
are
particularandmarkedtypeofDMs,
are
becomin2thefocusofDMresea∽h.However,mostofmepreviousCDMrese盯ches
or
madeatthesymacticaIldsemantic
semaIltic1evelwmch
enlphasize
theirsyntacticpositions,collocatbn
occllr
acceptability
inunemnces.曰讲isfollndtobeableto
aS
inalmosta11也e
con舡astivecor浦exts,b毗n0explarIationisg沁enexceptregardingitBased
on
themostgeneralCDM.
theanalvsesabove,wechoose
CDMs舶m
DMs
aS
thefocusofmisresearchaIld
accountforthem丘Dmtllecognitive.pragmaticperspective.
WithⅡ1e
supportoft11e
topmVidethe
Pr访cipleofRelevallce,wchaveattempted
thePrincipleofReleVance,
cognitivemotivationfbrusingCDMs.Giventheassumptionof
meSpeakeraimsatoptimalrelevanceandthehearerisemitledtointorpreteVeryuneranceat
meleast
processing
ef茄rt.Whentlleutterancehas
t、啪segmentsiIlconmlstiVerelationship.in
ordertoavoid
misu矗derstanding缸dsave也ehearer矗ommaktmgextrapro∞ss函gef如rt,me
speakerusuallyemploysCDMstocons仃ainmehearer’sselectionofcontextualassumptions
toguaraIIteethehearertoderive
the“pectedconclusionsandpremises.
conceptual
In
a
relevanceview,CDMs
donotencode
inf0蛐ation
butpmcedural
restrictSt11enumberof
meaningwhichmanipulatestheseconceptualreprcsentationsand
hypothesesthatmehearer
needstoconsider
34
inordertoa玎iveat
an
optimallyreleVant
interpretationattheleast
efror七.Withthe
asan
helpofcogIlitiVe
or
comextLlalefrccts,werecogllize
meproceduralmeaningofCDMseliminationof
a
infcrentialroutewhichendsinthccontradictiona11d
Then
wehave
madellllitary
a
contextual
assmption.
tentative
attemptto
account
accommodatethetypicalinterpretationsof6甜intlle
introducing
procedural
cases
of
conⅡadiction锄delimillation.ThereSultssuggestthatinaUthe
considered
6搿encodesthesameprocedureofactiv商ngthehearer’sinferentialroutewhichr}csu址sin也econtradictionandelimina廿onof
an
contextualassumDtion.FurtheHnofe,wehavefoundthat
on
6“fhasthemostgeneralrestrictionsassumptions
caIl
theselectionOfcognitivecomext.Thecontextual
subclasses
ofcognmVecomext,including
be
derived行omalmostaU
physical
context,co—text,linguisticstructIlre如dencycIopedicstructure.This
caIl
just
proVides
a
cognitiveexplaflationforwhy6WotherCDMsacceptably.Anddiscovercdmat
occur
inalmostallthecontrastiVeconteXtandrepIace
ex锄iIlingobjectionaIldcorrectionuseof6地wehaVealso
neither矗owew,nor孵Pw砌e毙sscanactiVatemei山’efentialprocedurewhich
by
assumptions如rivedf幻mphysical
conteXt
on
co胁砸icts
andeliminatesthe
andlinguistiethcpanicular
structure.Inthiswayitis如rtherprovedmatitisme
di位rent
restrictions
cognitivecontextthatdistingIlish矗Dwev已EH口w,砌P把盯from6“f.
InconclusiDn,CDMsnotonlyactivatetheinferentialprocedurewhichresultsinthecontradictiona11deIiminationofacomextuaIassumption,butalSorestrictsmeselectionofthecognitivccontext.Atmeselectionof
saIIle
time,theselectionofcognitivecontextalsodemaIldst11e
di舵rentCDMs.The觚o
resmctionsofselectioninteractingwimeachother
CDMs
conveymoreinformation.Thediscove珂oftherestrictionsonc0911itivecomextand
mayshed1ightfactor
as
onas
tlleresearch
on
omer
DMs.毗ingintoconsiderationthedynamiccontext
ollr
well
t11einfbrentialproceduralmeallingmayfacilitate
distinguishingthe
makeL2thattheir
subtledifrerencesbetweenDMsleanlersawareofcommunication
can
w油similar
meaning,andmoreimpoftam哆may
so
di疏rent
usagesofCDMsin
di舵rent
cognmvccontcxts
bemorepragmaticallyappropriateandaccurate.
5.2LimitatioⅡs
Inspiteofgreateffortmadetomakethepresemstudytenable,therestillremainsome
deficiencies.Inthepresentstudy,only
one
CDM6珊isanalyzedsystematicallywhileother
CDMssuch
as幻wFv蹦胎附锄P拓盯arc
only
mentioned崩e玎y.The
distinctions
a
are
only
madebet、veen矗owgv何以Pv已,蜥P跆ssand6wwithouttryingtomAke
di矗’erencebetweensometypical
uses
向owPvP,and”Pw,砌P尼船.0ntheo山erhaIld,ollrresearchonlyfocuses
of6埘.Manyomerim盯prctationsdiScussedintraditionalliteratweoftheIimitofspace.TheconclusionwebaⅣedrawnrlcedsTb
are
on
notanaiyzedbecause
morejustincation
and
ex枷ination.
can
sumup,thereisstinmuchmorework也atneedstobedonebeforcwe
3S
have
a
saIisfactoryandcomprehensiVecognitive-pragmaticaccoumofCDMsas、ⅣellaSDMs.5.3RemainingQuestionsforFutulleResearch
asTheoretically,omertypesofDMs谢msimilarmeaIlings
teⅡIlsofres仃ictiononcognitivecontextasCDMscaJlbeaIlalyzedinresultsof
amongwellasprocedllrali芏1fomation.Thetheserese缸ches
tIlem.areexpectedtoreveal也enat、ⅡeofDMsandthcsubtkdistin幽ons
InChinese,、vealsohaveCDMssuchas“但是,不过,然而,可是”.nleproblemofwhethertheCDMsinEnglishandChineseIallguagecorreSpondwitheachotherwouldbewonhwhileacontrastivestudy.
carIPractically,t11eresearchbemadcon
ontheL2leamerS’masteryofDMs,especiallyontheir孙忸renessof也eresmctionofCDMs
andwritingto
inpragmaticcognitivecontextinmeteachingoftranslationemployCDMsappropriatelyaJldaccuratelyex啪inewhemerL21e啪erscansense.
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