话语标记语

【活动策划】

学生党员文明宿舍评比活动策划书

一、活动背景

20xx年3月召开了全国人民代表大会和全国政协会议。作为新一代的大学生党员和入党积极分子,我们肩负着更重要的历史使命,有责任也有义务提高自身的政治素质,与时俱进,时刻与党中央保持一致,为国家做出更大的贡献。

为了积极配合学校开展的党员带头活动,保证同学们安全文明卫生的生活环境、保持党员先进性,发挥领导带头作用。本次评比的重点在学习、卫生、安全方面。

二、活动主题

党员模范、文明宿舍

三、活动时间、地点

时间:20xx年4月2日-4月29日;

地点:外文学院2012级研究生语言学党支部党员学生寝室

四、活动对象

2012级研究生语言学党支部党员学生

五、活动目的

更好地体现党员宿舍的带头模范作用;同时,也让更多的同学像党员同学学习,从而调动同学们的积极性,养成良好的学习和卫生习惯。营造良好健康的学习生活环境,从宿舍卫生、宿舍成员遵守校纪情况、学习风气、平时表现等方面来对比,来提高当代大学生党员的综合素质。

六、活动安排

1、人员安排:学习方面由党支部书记徐银红负责,宿舍成员遵守校纪方面由宣传委员傅青青负责,学习风气方面由组织委员马娜负责,平时表现方面由王桂云负责。

2、每次寝室综合评比后,总结检查结果,按照分数评出2个优秀寝室,优秀寝室获得者我们将在支部会议上给予通报表扬,并给该寝室颁发带有“优秀党员寝室”字样的流动小红旗。若发现有违规和作弊现象,则直接取消其优秀寝室的评比资格。

3、当每次评比结束后,择日召开宿舍评比总结大会,并将那些所拍的照片上传到党支部群空间或共享里,好差对比,晓之以理,让学生党员从思想上意识到党员宿舍的带头作用的重要性,从而提高学生的学习和竞争意识,从根本上解决问题的出现。

七、活动注意的问题

公平、全面的评价每个寝室

【活动总结】

学生党员文明宿舍评比活动总结

一、活动时间

20xx年4月2日-4月29日;

二、活动地点

外文学院2012级研究生语言学党支部党员学生寝室

三、主办单位

外文学院2012级研究生语言学党支部

四、前期准备

准备带有“优秀党员宿舍”字样的流动小红旗,事先开会部署工作

五、活动过程

学习方面由党支部书记徐银红负责,宿舍成员遵守校纪方面由宣传委员傅青青负责,学习风气方面由李美莲负责,平时表现方面由王桂云负责。,随后总结评比结果,按照分数评出2个优秀宿舍,优秀宿舍获得者在支部会议上给予表扬,并给该宿舍颁发带有“优秀党员宿舍”字样的流动小红旗。

评比结束后,召开了宿舍评比的总结大会,并将所拍照片上传到党支部群空间或共享里,好差对比并提醒大家不足之处,向优秀党员宿舍学习。

六、活动意义

通过党员宿舍评比这种方式敦促学生党员形成自律习惯,养成良好的生活学习习惯,并且有助于学生党员在生活中发挥党员的先锋模范带头作用,先进体现到生活学习的各个方面,有助于整个学院良好精神风貌的养成,提高了党支部在同学中的影响力,也有力的配合了学校开展的创先争优活动。

七、问题和教训

在评比党员宿舍时有部分同学不配合,觉得不公平,下次活动时应注意提前做好通知和解释;增加评比的透明度,尽可能的取得大家的满意。

【活动新闻】

学生党员文明宿舍评比活动

为积极响应外文学院深入开展创先争优活动的号召,充分发挥学生党组织在宿舍文化建设方面的引领作用,20xx年4月份开始,外文学院2012级研究生语言学党支部对党员学生寝室开展了文明宿舍评比活动。

评比中发现中发现,外文学院2012级研究生语言学党支部的学生党员宿舍大多学习氛围浓厚,宿舍成员准时参加各种活动,准时上课放学,严格遵守学校的各种纪律。有的还将宿舍温馨地装饰一新,和宿舍同学一起创造了一个温馨、和谐,

积极向上的宿舍环境。不少党员宿舍都合理地对宿舍卫生打扫进行了人员分配,排出值日表,做到大家分工明确、职责清晰。此次文明宿舍评比共评比出2个优秀寝室,其中女生两个宿舍分获“最佳学习宿舍”和“最佳温馨宿舍”称号。

此次党员文明宿舍评比活动对学生党员起到了监督促进的作用,促使学生党员在日后的学习生活中处处争先,争当宿舍里的“服务标兵”和学习上的带头人。而且评比结果显示,学生党员在宿舍学习生活方面确实尽到了应有的责任和义务,起到了带头模范作用。

(来自中国矿业大学外文学院新闻)

【活动策划】

“与时俱进 关注时事”

——学习新党章研讨会策划

一、活动主题

“与时俱进 关注时事”—— 外文学院2012级研究生语言学党支部

研讨会

二、活动目的

时政学习是学生党员与时俱进、时刻保持党员先进性的方法之一,通过此次学习新党章研讨会,提高党支部内部成员理论素养及理论学习水平。让同学们能一起讨论学习近期时事,一起畅谈所思所想,在支部内部形成理论学习的良好氛围。

三、活动时间

20xx年3月13日19:00

四、活动地点

党员工作站

五、参与人员

外文学院2012级研究生语言学党支部党员学生

六、活动的内容及安排

(一)前期宣传和准备:

1.查找近期的热点问题,准备好研讨议题----新党章的变化,以及如何践行新党章

2.积极做好前期宣传,如做好工作人员分配、筹备等工作。

3.报请指导老师同意,同时请求得到指导老师的指导与支持。

4.提前联系借好党员工作站作为活动场地。

5.邀请传媒中心人员进行活动全程拍照。

(二)活动流程:

1.首先由主持人徐银红介绍此次学习新党章研讨会的相关背景。

2.主持人通过一些理论讲解进行有针对性地引导,继而引出议题,与会者展开讨论;

3.讨论结束后鼓励同学们就议题积极发言。

4.新闻传媒中心人员在会上拍照。

【活动总结】

“与时俱进 关注时事”

——学习新党章研讨会总结

20xx年3月,外文学院2012级研究生语言学党支部党员学生在党员工作站就学习新党章,保持党员先进性开展了本次研讨会,内容涉及到大家关心的物价问题,反腐问题还有优秀党员的先进事例。回顾最近发生在我们身边的事,有欢喜也有忧虑,都发人深省。

我们深知开展先进性教育活动具有深远意义。树立和落实科学发展观,学习实践“三个代表”重要思想,引导广大党员学习贯彻党章,坚定理想信念,坚持党的宗旨,发扬优良传统,认真解决党员和党组织在思想、组织、作风以及工作方面存在的突出问题,不断增强党员队伍和党组织的创造力、凝聚力,最终脚踏实地的践行“中国梦”。

这次研讨会气氛热烈,到场人员积极讨论,但是前期准备工作略显不足,对党章的理解不够深刻,没有结合社会热点。通过这次研讨会,我们深刻认识到,作为一名学生党员,我们要关注民生,聚焦社会热点,做爱生活的智者,走在时代的前沿。

【活动新闻】

我院2012级研究生语言学党支部开展学习新党章研讨会 20xx年3月13日19:00我院2012级研究生语言学党支部党员学生在党员工作站召开时事研讨会,就学习新党章及一系列热点问题进行了热烈讨论。

研讨会上,2012级研究生语言学党支部党员学生从“党章概述、历届党章回顾、解读新党章、学习党章方法”四个方面入手,用生动形象的语言阐述了党章发展历史,以及如何学好新党章,并在新党章的指引下如何营造和构建和谐广场,如何提高管理学习水平以及如何加强党员学生的党性修养锻炼和优良作风养成等。通过对党章的学习,使在场的每个党员都认识到要认真学习和遵守党的章程,永葆先进性、争当合格党员,要努力把干好工作和提升自身素质,努力学习起带头作用统一起来,推动自身素质不断得到提高,要与时俱进,不断适应新形势、新情况、新工作;坚持全心全意为人民服务是我们党的宗旨,也是每一个党员所必须坚守的信念意识。

此次研讨会通过对新党章的变化与热点时事进行集体讨论,提高了大家对家事国事的关注度的同时也加强了大家的责任意识,加深了同学们对新党章的理解与学习。

(来自中国矿业大学外文学院新闻)

【活动策划】

读书研讨会策划

一、活动主题

学习型党支部建设之读书研讨

二、活动目的

为了加强学习型党支部的建设工作,同时提高大家的思想理论素质和境界,党支部特举办此次读书研讨会,以一种探讨的方式学习中国特色社会主义理论体系,以拓展大家的人文社科知识,丰富文化修养,并学会在优秀思想指导下研究新问题,解决新情况。

三、活动时间

20xx年5月20日

四、活动地点

外文学院文B305

五、活动对象

外文学院2012级研究生语言学党支部党员学生

六、主办单位

外文学院2012级研究生语言学党支部

七、活动前期准备

1、 精选出部分优秀的中国特色社会主义理论文献供大家阅读。

2、选择好读书研讨的时间和地点。

3、 积极在党支部内作好活动的动员工作,鼓励大家认真准备此次读书研讨会

4、 联系宣传委员负责拍照及后期相关事宜。

5、 精心布置会场。

八、活动内容

1、 主持人徐银红首先介绍此次读书研讨会召开的背景与目的。

2、 同学们讨论并分享自己的阅读感想与收获。

3、 主持人作总结发言。

4、 会后同学们每人提交一份读书报告。

【活动总结】

外文学院2012级研究生语言学党支部建设

之读书研讨活动总结

外文学院2012级研究生语言学党支部于20xx年5月20日,在外文学院文

B305举办了一次读书研讨会。此次活动旨在加强学习型党支部的建设工作,同时提高大家的思想理论素质和境界。此外,活动旨在以一种探讨的方式学习中国特色社会主义理论体系,以拓展大家的人文社科知识,丰富文化修养,并学会在优秀思想指导下研究新问题,解决新情况。

研讨会正式开始前,全体支部成员对于精选出的部分优秀的中国特色社会主义理论文献进行了认真阅读,积极为研讨会做好准备。读书研讨会上,在支部书记徐银红的带动下,2012级研究生语言学党支部的全体成员们踊跃发表了自己的观点,并积极分享了自己的阅读感想与收获,整个研讨会上气氛热烈。讨论结束后,主持人总结了本次研讨会的成果和收获,并鼓励大家在新时期继续不断加强对中国特色社会主义理论文献的学习,积极进取,保持党员应有的先进性。此后,同学们提交了自己的读书报告,报告中,同学们感悟颇深,有的提出了自己的新见解,有的则对文献内容表达了自己的共鸣。

通过此次研讨会支部成员们的积极参与和热烈讨论,同志们对新时期如何建设一个学习型党支部,如何不断学习中国特色社会主义理论有了新的认识,思想理论素质和境界都有了提高。相信在优秀思想的指导和感召下,同志们能更出色地解决以后的学习、生活、工作中遇到的新问题、新情况,更好地把理论融于实践,保持党员应有的先进性。

【活动新闻】

外文学院09级文学德语学习型党支部

建设之读书研讨活动顺利进行

4月6日,外文学院09级文学德语党支部全体成员在外文学院竹三党员工作站举办了以学习型党组织建设为主题的读书研讨会。本次会议由支部书记刘芳瑜同志主持,外文学院09级文学德语党支部全体成员参加了本次研讨会。 研讨会正式开始前,全体支部成员对于精选出的部分优秀的中国特色社会主义理论文献进行了认真阅读,积极为研讨会做好准备。读书研讨会上,在支部书记刘芳瑜的带动下,09级文学德语党支部的全体成员们踊跃发表了自己的观点,并积极分享了自己的阅读感想与收获,整个研讨会上气氛热烈。讨论结束后,主持人总结了本次研讨会的成果和收获,并鼓励大家在新时期继续不断加强对中国特色社会主义理论文献的学习,积极进取,保持党员应有的先进性。此后,同学们提交了自己的读书报告,报告中,同学们感悟颇深,有的提出了自己的新见解,有的则对文献内容表达了自己的共鸣。通过支部成员们的积极参与和热烈讨论,同志们对新时期如何建设一个学习型党支部,如何不断学习中国特色社会主义理论有了新的认识,思想理论素质和境界都有了提高。相信在优秀思想的指导和感召下,同志们能更出色地解决以后的学习、生活、工作中遇到的新问题、新情况,更好地把理论融于实践,保持党员应有的先进性。

此次活动加强了学习型党支部的建设工作,同时提高大家的思想理论素质和境界。此外,此次读书研讨活动以一种探讨的方式学习中国特色社会主义理论体系,以拓展大家的人文社科知识,丰富文化修养,并学会在优秀思想指导下研究新问题,解决新情况。

(来自中国矿业大学外文学院新闻)

 

第二篇:对比性话语标记语的认知语用分析

糸壮峄盔大季

硕士学位论文

ACognitive—pragmaticAⅡalysisofContrastive

Discourse⑧Markers

对比性话语标记语的认知一镕用2析

;i;i::::;;:。,。i;

:i冀嚣氧

东北师范大学学位评定委自会2006年5月

摘要

话语标记语,作为一种普遍的语言现象,早在七十年代就已受到许多研究学者的青睐。尽管话语标记语的研究成果颇丰,由于对其研究的出发点或侧重点不同,使得对其本质的解释也不尽相同。但无论是从连贯理论的角度还是句法/语义一语用的角度都不能很好地为话语标记语这一对语言有制约功能的语言现象提供心理解释。而关联理沧对话语标记语却具有较强的解释力。关联理论认为,话语标记语是程序意义编码,而不是形成话语所表达的命题关系,话语标记语是寻找关联过程中的一个重要依据,即话语标记语所连接的就是话语与语境或语境假设之间的关系。

随着对话语标记语研究的不断发展和深入,研究学者发现并不是所有的话语标记语对听话人推理过程的语用制约的作用相一致。对比性话语标记语因其独特的对比性语义特征及其在话语生成和理解过程中必不可少的地位使其在话语标记语的研究领域独树一帜,引起了人们广泛关注。然而绝大多数的对比性话语标记语的研究都以分门别类为主,或是在句法或是在语义层面进行。作为对比性话语标记语的主要代表,人们发现施f几乎可以代替所有表示对比性的话语标记语来使用。除了把它看作是用法最为宽泛的对比性话语标记语,以往的研究方法并没有为此提供任何解释。

本文以关联理论为框架。试图从认知一语用的角度对对比性话语标记语进行分析和讨论。借助关联理论寻求对比性话语标记语使用的认知动因以及对比性话语标记语所编码的程序化意义。在此基础上对肋}的程序意义进行分析,旨在揭示认知语境对对比性话语标记语的理解和研究的作用以及在区别对比性话语标记语细微差别方面的功能。

本文共分五章:

第一章扼要介绍了话语标记语和对比性话语标记语及其研究价值,并简单介绍本文纲要。

第二章综合评述了话语标记语和对比性话语标记语的研究现状.在对比分析了话语标记语的研究方法后得出结论,以关联理论为框架的认知一语用方法在对比性话语标记语的解释上更具有说服力。

第三章首先简单介绍关联理论,并对明示一推理交际模式和关联原则加以论述。最后在对比传统的语境观的基础上,分析讨论了关联理论的认知语境。

第四章为本文的主体部分,关联理论为对比性话语标记语的使用提供了认知动因,并分析出对比性话语标记语是程序意义编码,而不是形成话语所表达的命题关系。这个程序化意义即否定与消除某一假设的推理过程比but的传统解释更具有说服力。同时发现对比性话语标记语幻}否定与消除的某一假设几乎可从所有的认知语境中获得,这一发现既为衄}的使用广泛性提供了认知依据,也证明了对比性话语标记语和认知语境之IV

涮的相互作用和制约为话语产生和理解提供更多信息。本章还试图用认知一语用的方法来区别but和however,nevertheless之间细微差别。

第五章在概括全文的基础上得出结论,并指出不足以及未来在话语标记语和对比性话语标记浯领域的研究前景。

关键词:对比性话语标记语;认知一语用分析:关联理论V

Abstract

SiⅡcethe1970s,imerestinDMshaSincreasedcommensurately淅thagrowinginterestin1anguageproductionaIldcornprehension.ResearchesonDMs,thou曲richandfmitful,aref缸fbmbeinghomog。neousaIldcomplete.,r11cstudjesonDMshaVebeendoneundermoret11an帆ntyoverI印pingIabels,wmchprovest11atdi彘rentresearchersholddi恐rentopinionsando丘Ierdi肫rentexplailatio且sofmenatureofDMs.nIerearet}1reemainapproachestothestudyofDMs.Comparedwi也也e铆oapproachesofcOher号nce-baseda11dgr绷atical?pra鲫撕capproach,ne曲erofwhichprOVidesapsychologicalexplanationforDMsinu_【teranceproductiOnandimerpretatiOn,t11ereleVance-basedcogI血ive—pmgmatic印pmachpr0“desamoreconviIlcinga11dpromis协g触workforexplainingmeuseofDMs.

Onmeomerhand,谢mthedeveIoDmentofresearchinthisfield,researcherscometoreaIizet11atnotallDMsmakeequalcon仃ibutionsinguiding血ehe甜er’simerpretationprocesses.ContrastiVediscol】rsemarkerS(CDMs),asasubcIassofDMs,、vi也similarmeaningofcontrastwhnebearingsubtledistinctionswhenllSed,arecomingtoⅡlecenterofDMfese甜ch.Howcver'mostof血epreviousCDMresearchesaredominatedbyclassific£址ionandtaxonomyate珧erasyIltacticorasemanticlevel.占wisfoundtObeabletooccurinahnostaIlthecon仃astiVecomems,butnOexplanationisgiVenexceptregardingitasthemostgeneralCDM.BasedonRelev姐ceTheory,thepresentstudyattemptstoexploreⅡ1enatureofCDMsf幻mtllecogIIitive—pragm撕cperSpective,especiallytlleprimaryCDM6以toseekforthecognitiVeexplanationforitSgcneralpropertywhenused.FmeHnore,Some丘ne?graineddistinctionsinmeaIlingbet、veen6甜andotherCDMsareexpectedtobec印nlred.

ThepresentdissertationconsistSof矗vcchaptersw弛也ein仃oduc矗onasChapterOne.ThemaincomentVinuallyStans舶mChapterTwo,whichproVidesanoveⅣiewofmestudiesonDMsandCDMs.Di鼢眦approachesto也erese砌onDMsarecomp盯ed、vitheachothef、Ⅳitllmeajmtointroduce也estmngerrelevancrbasednmeworkwhichcouldbemorepromisinginexpIoringtllenatllreaIldcharacteristicsofCDMs.

ChapterThreefirstlyproyidesarougllintroductionofRelevancet11eoⅨthenexamhlestheostensiVe-i11ferentialco跚u面cationmodelarldthePrincipleofReleVance,aIldfinallycomparedw“hthetraditionalViewsofcontext,也erclevance—theoreticnotionofcogn三tivecontextisaIlalyzed.

Inthe1ightofReieVancemeoryinnDducedinChapterThree,ChapterFourgivesatentatiVeaccountofcognitiVemotivationforusingCDMs.Thentheinvestig砒ionismadeonTT

thecogIlmvepropenyofproceduralmeaningwhichmakesCDMscmciaJintheutceranceimerpret砒ion.TheproceduralmeaningofCDMsofintroducingcontradictionandeliminationisappliedtotheanalySisof6“f.Atentativeattemptismadetoaccommodatethetypicalinte叩retationsof6甜intheumtaryproceduralaccollIltofintroducingcon廿amctionandelimination.F11nhcnnore,t11ediscoveryofthefactthat也econtc越ualassumptionscanbederiVed行omalmosta11subclassesofcognitivecontext,includ如gphysicalcontext,co—text,lingIlistic妯ctureand肌cyclopedics锄ctureiseXpected

forwhy6甜caIl

TheoccIlrtoproVideacognitiveexplanationinalmostall也econtrastivecomext姐dreplaceomerCDMsacc印tablydistin幽onbetween6碱Aowever

concluding

asandnever魄e如ssistentat~elymscussed.majorfindingsareChapterFiveist11eremad(s,wheretllewellaSsummarized.areLimitationsoft11epresemstudy

discussedintllischaDteLtllesuggestionfor缸nlreresearchalso

Keywords:con廿aStivediscoursemarkers{

ReleVancemeo珂cognitiVe—pragmatic越alysis

III

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Acknowledgements

Thisdissenationisaccomplishedunderthe

rcspectedsupervisor

encouragememaIldPmfessorzhangcriticism.inspiration姐denlightemnentofmytoshaojie.I锄greatlyindebtedhisconstantcons咖ctiVe

Mye锄estm赳出salsogotoProfessorY撕gZlmng,ProfessorChengXiaoguang,ProfcssorKongDehIli,ProfessorYrmgYuchen,ProfessorSuiMingcai,andProfessorSongZhipingfort11eirenlighteningteachmgwhichprovestobeofgrcathelpinmydissenatjonfbⅡnationaIldacademicresearch.Ialsoowe

whohasbeenanadeepgratitudetot11eforeignteacherDavidunfailingsollrceofsupportinmyacadenlicwritingtechniquesaIldskills.

Finally,1would1iketoth鲫Ikmyparerltsandmy衔endsfortheirwh01eheanedsupportf-orme.

ChapterOne

Introduction

1.1Discourse

Markers(DMs)and

ContrastiveDiscourse

Markers(CDMs)

relateddass

ArapidIyexpandingbodyofresearchhasbeendealingwithfunctionally

ofconnectiveexpressions

as

thoseinboldmthefollowingsequences:

(1)a.SueleRVerylate.Butshearrivcdontimc.

b.Ybuhaveto

c.DorHtaisnot

helpllim.AfteraIl,heisyollrbrotlleL

sheⅥDuldbe.

to

here,althoughshe髓id

Thesewords

or

lexicaIexprcssionsdonotbelonganyoft11em勾or

syntacticcategories,nor

dot11eyindicateobjects,evems

or

pmperties.Theirmeaningsdonotseemtoconmbutetothe

occut

conceptualmeaningofutterances证whichtheyproperty:tlleyimpose

Instead,theyshare

one

common

rcl撕onsllipbetween山esegmenttheyintroduce,whichiscalledS2,

龇ldⅡ1esegmentprecediIlgtllem,whichiscalledS1.AvadetyofnaIneshaVebeenla_beledtotheseitems,butrecentresearchhaswitnessedtlletendency廿lattheyhavebeenfkquemlyfeferredtocompeting

as

DISCOURSEMARXERS(DMs)andbecomethemostpopularof

mis

hostof

no

tc肌s.In

disse删on、粉adopt

the

nalne

ofDMsbecause“shows

pre传renceforthe

syntactic咖ctllreor劬ctionsof让略linguisticexpressionsanditimposes

on

theleastrestrictions

therangeofapplications.

havebeenmadesincethe1980’stode最neandstudyDMs.The

fbanlresthewholehistoryofmeresearch

on

Constant熊errlpts

divergenceofthcpossiblefor

us

te珊DMs

DMsanditseems

toobtain

roughidea

of也c

aboutthepropeniesandcharacteristics

to

ofDMs

fmm也e

foIlo谢ngMef∞eounts

systematicresearchmeaIls

as

on

de£nitions西ven

DMs.schi脚n(1987),whoiIl主ti蹴d

ser、,eas

DMs,5tatcsthatDMsirIdicatetheleveIsofdiscoursea11d

into

ofintegrating恤levcls

segmentsand

are

coherent

whole.HoweV%forFraser(1990,1999),DMs,

subclassofpragmaticmarkers,signal

used

ce—n

relationshiptllatthcspeal【∞r洒tends

betwe啊thc

to曲‘ectme

hearer’sinterprctation.Each【'M}las

core

meaning,butthemeaningis

not

conceptualbutmtherpmcedural,wheretheDMsignalshow

S2istobeinterpreted.withinmeRelevallce

Theory行蛐eWork,Blake咖re(2004)defines

are

DMs

asa

symacticallyhcterogen∞usclassofexpressionswllicll

diStinguiShedbytheir

如nctionindiscourseandthekilldofmeallingtheyencode.ShcassumesthatDMsindicateexactlyhowtllerelevanceofoneproposmonisdependent

onto

theinterprctationofano也erandmstructmehearertodcriveⅡ1e

an

DMs

are

added

be柳eenmetwosegmentsin

an

attempt

intended

impIicatL职.AIl

t11ishasmadeitclearmatDMspIayimponantrolein

ut七erance

imerpretationandfurtherresearchofDMsisin1lrgemneedtomakeintheunexplored

domains.

Research

areonDMshasbeendominatedbytaXonomyandclass试cation、vhich,ingeneral,madeatadescriptiveIeVel.ThemostnoticeablefigureinmisfieldisFraserwhohaSmadegreatcontributionstomeresearchof七lMs.ItisFmserwhocoinedthemakers”anddividedtheDMs

equiValenttothosesuggestedby

Thefollrsubclassesaretem“contrastiveareintofoursubclasses,ThesefourcategoriesroughlYBlakemore(1992)intermsofthemessagesrelatedbyDMs.illustratedbythef0110win2examples:

(2)a.weleftlate.胁wPvPr,wegotmereontime

b.Thebankhasbeenclosed

c.IaU出阱砌螂,wecouldn’tmakeawithdrawal_amglad也atis最nished.乃耐甜m细则pD加^I’dliketodseussyourp印eL

picIlicisnlined.ThernayonnaisehaSd.net啪edr肌cidThebeeriswaml.fkr肪ermo旭,itisraining.

Inthefirstcase,厅。wPVP,signalsthattheexplicitS2messageisinunexpectedcon昀stwith柚impliedmessageassociated惭ths1.suchDMsarelabeledContrastiveDiscourse

asMarkers(cDMs).In(2b),肪淞signals

athatthesegmentfollowingistobetakenexpressingconclusionforwhichthecoIltemofS1providesiustification.Inmissense,thesecondsubclasswhich

DiscourseSi熙alsS2tobetakenaSaconclusionbasedonSlisentmedasInferennalMarkers(IDMs).I工l(2c),幻理f“牌幻开矿pD加f

assignalsthereintroductionoftheT0picChaIlgeDiscourseMarkers

aspreVioustopicofthediscourse.Thisgroupisref已rredto(TcDMs).n砌ermo冲in(2d)si印als

moreitemto

signalsaathat血ccontemofS2istobetakenadd啦one1istofconditionsspecinedbytlleprecedillgdiscourse,sothecatcgorywhichbe“帕enS2arldSliscalledElaborativeDiscoursequasi—parallelrelationship

Markers(EDMs).TheDMsincludedi11mesefourgroups盯elistedinTable1.CDMs6删,altematively,although,con拄arytoexpectanons,

conVersely,despite(tlli“mat),eVenso,howeVer,inspiteof(t11i“that),incomparison(wimthis/mat),incontrast(tothis/mat),instead(of

onthi鼬神,neVenheless,not谢thstand加岛this/mat),theottler王laIld,ont王lecontrary,rather(thafl

rcg盯dless(ofmis/tIlat),sml,though,whereas,yet

IDMsSo,aRerall,allmingsconsidercd,asaconclusion,asa

consequence(oftllis/mat),asaresuh(ofthis/that),because(ofmis/thanconsequently,forthis/matreason,hence,itfollows

case,onthat,accordingly,int}lis/_t11at/arlythi趴hatcondition,on

tllese,thosegrounds,men,thcrefore,thus2

EDMs

aⅡd,aboveall,also,altematively,arlalogousIy,besides,byⅡlesametoken,correspondingly,equally,forexample,forins协nce,fhnheHnore,inaddition,inomerwords,in

panic山ar,like晰se,

morcaccurately,moreimportamly,nloreprecisely’moretothepoint,Inorcover,onthatbasis,ontopofitall,or,otherwise,

rather,si玎marly,thatis(tosay)

TCDMs

backto

myorig洒alpoint,before

toupdateyou,ona

forget,by

the姗Iy,

incidentally,just

di氐rent

note,Speakingof

X,thatremirldsme,tochangetotopic,toretumtomypoint,whileI也inkofit,withregardsto.

T£lble1:FoIlrSubclassesofDMs

Asisshownabove,CDMssignal

a“con位嘶ve”relationshipbetween

caSes

thesegrnentthey

jnHDduceand也eprecedingsegment,a1也Oughinsomecontrast.Insomecases,someexprcssionsbearingthe

theysignalmorcthansimple

as

s锄e

fornl

CDMs

are

fLlnctioning

di腩rently.For

example:

(3)a.A:Ihaddi衄erwith0eo唱elastIlight,

B:B£f∥如c娩玎捌≯md

b.Everyone6“,John

v,as

yougctpaidthe

money?

releasedtogohome.

c.Ihave6“,amoment.

d.胁wPw,hardhe埘es,henevefseemsableto

曰掰in(3a)is

worksatis内ctorily.

topicchangepragrnatic

an

mad吼in(3b)is

proposmon,mugIllyequivalemto

an

蹦c印^in(3c)ismodi够ing

the

adverb,synonymous谢th鲫咖-,螂.协wP坩,in(3d)is

adVerb

adVerb矗以

simiIar

CDMs,谢th

messageconveyedsubclass

com硎vcmeanin&provideiⅢlormation

by

themamfocusofthepresentstudy.

on

howtoimeIpretme

bythesegmemimroducedthema11dthcpriorsegmem.Ast11eprincipal

ofDMs,theyare

1.2SignificanceofthePresentstudy

FormanytheoristswhoseintereStliesincohcrence,DMs“discourse

are

seen

as

kindof

glue”(schi衢in,1987).The埘mary

uS

roleofDMsistheirfunctionin

estabI㈣ng

the

cormectivityi11discourseandfacilitatingHowever,itcannotbe

toaccoumfortheteXtualunityofdiscourse.

ignoredthattllestudyofDMsenlel_gedand掣ew

or

just“tb

deVelopmentofpragmatics.Scholars,、ⅣhemerinsyntaX,semanticsregard

the

pmgmalics,tendto

DMs

asa

linguistic

phenomenon

as

which

serves

d”锄ic

a11dpmgmaticf.unctions.Itis

pfagmatk缸lction

ofDMs

guidelinesor。roadsignals’matcontribmeto血ehearer’s

inteⅢretation

ofunerallcesa11d

helpmehearermakelessprocessingeff-ortforachieving

cognmee&cts.The肌itmI

the

achieVementsmadeinthisfieldhaveshownmattlle

rese眦hon

DMs

ispromisingandmanydomainSconcemingDMs

t0

are

underexploration,With伽e

deVelopmentofresearchinmisfield,rcsearcherscomereaIizethatnota11DMsmakeequaI

concributionsinguidingtheheafer’sinterpretationprocesses.Contfastivediscoursemarkers,

as

subclassofDMs,wimsimilarmeaningofcontrastwhilebearingsubtledistinctionswhen

used,arecomingto廿lecenterof

DMresearch.CDMs

possessmanyrcpresemativeproperties

afldcharacteristicsoftheprocessof

DMs.What

ismorc,theirsemanticallySpecialpropertyof

con们st

in

communication姐d

in帅retationmakesmemdoom

tooccupyme

are

pmminem

dominated

placeintheresearchofDMs.Howevcr,mostofthepreviouSCDMresearchesbyclassificationandtaxonomyateither

eVer

syntadic

ora

sematlticievel.Fewattemptshave

beenmade

to

exploreCDMsfbmthecogIlitiVe—pragmaticperspectiVe,whichis

prospects.ReleVaJlce

be撕ng

promisingandenli曲teningtheo嘞aS

t11e

cognmvepsychological

theoryintroducedbySperberandWilsoninl980s,hasbeenappliedtomanyfieldsofresearchandpr0Videsres山tsofmeresearch

noVelVisionfor100kingatmaIlydisputingissuesinlinguistics.The

on

CDMs筋m

well.

t11enewaspectwillsurelyfacilitate

our蛐d哪caIlding

to

ofmuchmoreaboutthenatIlreofDlvIsandthenal=u]陀ofcommunication,andcontribute

language

leamingandteacKngas

1.3DomainofthePresentstudy

Based

on

Relevance

Theo啪me

present

study甜锄plsto

exploreme

n抓聃ofCDMs,a

cDM6w

as

subclassofDMsf如m也e

cog血ive-pragrnatic

perspective,especially

the砸mary

ofDMs

aIldseekformeimplication

of咖dies

on

CDMsfor

exploring恤namre

wim

well

aS

Englishlanguageteachjngand

1e咖ing.

chapters

TheprescmdissertationconsistsoffiveThemaincomentvirtIlalIystudies

on

the血∞duction

aIl

as

Chap忙r0ne.

stans舶mCh印ter

Two,whichprovides

on

overview

of龇

DMsaIld

CDMs.Di氐rent

approachesto也eresearch

DMs

are

comparedwith

eachot}lerwiththeaimtoimroducethesn_0ngerf}amework、ⅣKchcouldbemoreprom{singineXploringthe

nan鹏a11dcharacteristicsofCDMs.

chapterThree矗rstlyprovides

a∞u幽锄∞ductionof

Relevance

theo秭men

examines

theostensive-inferentialcomml|Ilicationmodel

and龇Principle

ofRelevance,aIldfinally

comparedwiththetraditionalvie、ⅣSofcontext,也erelevance?theoreticnotionofcognitive

contextisa11alyzed.

Inthe

1i曲tofRelevallcethcoryintroducedinCllapterTIlree,Ch印terFour西Ves

tentativeaccountofcognitivemotivationforusing

CDMs.Then

t11einvestigationismade

on

thccognitiVepropertyofpmceduralmeaIlingwhichmakesCDMscmcialinttleutterance

inteIpretation.TheproceduralmeanjngofCDMsofintroducingcontradictionandeliminationisappliedto血eaIlalysisof6“f.TheaIlalysisisfocusednotonlyonhowCDMsactivatetheinferentialpmcedurewhichresultsinthecomradictionandeliminationofanassumption,butalsoonhowCDMsconstraint}lcchoiceofmecognitivecontext,whichuItimateIyinnuencestheinterpretationofutteratlces.Thedistinctionbetween6玑^owev已rand甩已vP,砌P膪ssistentatiVelydiscussed.

Ch印terFiVeistheconcludmgremarks,wherethe

asm匈or矗ndingsareSummariZed.areLimita【ionsofthepresentstIldywellasthesuggestionformnlreresearchalso

discussedint11iscllaDteL5

ChapterTwoReViewoftheLiterature

2.1HistoricalRetrospectofStudiesoⅡDMs

Since血e1970s,intcrestmDMshasincreasedcommensuratelywithinlallguageproductionandaspects

asa

growinginterest

comprehension锄d,more

early

as

generally’inpmgmaticandcontextual

ofuttemceinterpretation.As

in1983,LevinsonconfirnledthevalueofDMs

separateclasstobestudied,alth。u出hcdidnotgivei±aname.oStnlan,oneofmee剐y

lcsearchersofDMs,definesDMsas“pragmaticpanicles”,wllichimpIicitlycon、,eythespeaker’samtudesa11demotions.Heholdsthatdiscoursemarkiflg

one

or

discourSeorgallizingis

majorfhnctionthatpragmaticpanicleshave.Insteadofgivillg

definitionofwhat

pragmaticparticIesare,hehasprovidedwitht}峨eparameters,which

are

pragmaticaI】mysisoftheirmnctionsindiscourse

coherence,politenessandiHvolvement.

Thefirsta11dmostdetaileddescriptionofDMswasmaintainsthateachDMhas

r印orted

by

Schi脏in(1987).Shc

a‘锄re】malling”.Herprimary

provided

interestisthewaysinwhichDMs

thcnotionof

core

fhnctionto“addtodiscoursemeallingwith

coherence”(ibid).Rcdeker(1991)印pmves

critiqueof

Schifmn.MoreoVer,he

Schimin(1987)and

t}len

proposedseVeralsignificaIltreVisions,includingbased

on

revisedmodelofdiscoursecoherellce

aIld

Sequential

t11ree

components:

IdeationaI

Snllcture,RhetoricalStmcture

Stmctllre.BD_[11Schjfhin趾dRedeker

emphasize协e鼬ctionofDMsin

t11ecoherence,more

importantly,mecoherenceofthediscourseinsteadoftheindividualsentencebythewayofthe

semaIltic-pragmatic印proach。Tllroughout

the1990s,thestudyofDMs1lasexpatlded

co埘nually

alldtIlr_11edinto

gro嫩hinduStryin1inguistics,with

B1akernore(1987,1990,1992,20∞,2004),Fraser(1990,

fourtypesofPMs

1996,1999),schourup(1999)asr印resentatives.Fraser(1990)posits

corresponding

to

fourdistinctmessagetypesincIudingBasicMarkers,CommentaryMarkers,

a11dParallelMark盯s.、聃t11inFurthenIlore,he

mis劬mework,DMs

areseenaSa

dis廿nctfjurmtypeofPMs.

continuestomakedivisions、Ⅳithin

convenienta11d

or

thesesllbclassesofDMs.Fraser’s

rationalbasis

classmcatoryschemeprovides

expressions

to

appealin西yf研assi印ing

approves山at

thedefinifecategorymealling、vhich

call

excluding

t11em(Schourup,1999).He

DMhasa

core

beellrichedbythecontextaIldmaintainsthat

it,allymoret11an

DMdoes

not“dispIay”arelations王lip,as

sc王li插缸(1987)wouldhaveverbdisplays

on

relationshipbetween

su巧ectandobject.R矗ther)as

inte∞广etations

hesugges把d,aDMimposes

S2

cenainrallgeofintcrpretations,giVenme

ofS1andthemeaningoftheDM,

‘IhemostnoticeabIetiguremthel990sisBlakemorewho、vorksatDMsfromtheperspectivcofRelevantTheoⅨThedefinitiongivcnbyBlakemoreutlderlinesⅡ1efactthattheseexpressionsmustbedescribedatmelevelofdiscollrseratherthaIlsentence.Moreover,BIakemoreemphaSizesthethatrefleetSthefact也attheseexpressions’

orte吼~煳R

onmeamngmustbeanalyzedmtemlsofwhatmeyindicatemarkrathcrnlanwhatmeydescribe.Muchof血eprcviousworkDMsdonebytheresearchershasrcsultcdinvarious

DMsaccountsofdiscourSecoherence,whcreasB1akemoreisthefjrStresearcherwhoexpJores

f玷mthecognitiVe-pragmaticperSpective.

111erearealsomanyresearcherswor【hbe抽gm锄tioned

aswhohavemadegreatcont曲utionstotheexplomtioniIlⅡlcfieldofDMs,suchHalliday&Hasan(1976),Mann

&Thompson(1986)who

analyses也eDMsmakemeirresearchofDMsoncohcrence,Rouchota(1996)whowith趣mecoherencetheory缸回eworkandthefelevance一也eoreticfr咖e、vork

nanjatives.a11dmakesthecompadsonoftheirsilIlilaritiesanddi&rences.Norrick(2001)aIlalyZesDMs洒oralnam瞳iveaIldshowsthatDMsenjoySpecializedfuJlctionsinoral

Inthe1980salld1990s,theresearchonDMsfiguredprominentiynotoniyinpragmaticaItddiscollrseanal”icresearchbutalsoinstudiesoflanguageacquisitionandlanguagepedagogy|THllo(2002)discussesthepragmaticfossilizationofDMsinnon-nativespeakers

asanofEnglishandproVestheroleofDMs

andteaching.elementtoconsiderinsecondlanguageleanling

ComparedwimtheDMsresearchabmad,thedomesticpmgressinthisfieldisrapidandremarkable.Prof.RanYbn印iIlg(2000)notonlyhasprovidedathorou曲a11dcomprehensiveimroductionofDMsresearchmade.mthewestcmworld,butalsoprobedimothedepmoftheChineseconversationphcnom如on硒tllregardtoDMs硒mmepragm“cperspective.Inthe

Xiaoguang(1999,2004)hasexpIorcd矗eidof1anguagelea玎1ingandteaching,Prof=Cheng

tllepedagogicalimplicationsof

makinganDMs(‘metadisco嘲’iIlt11earticle)inwrit证ginspiringlybyexperiIncmalstudyofthee丘’ectofteachingDMsinnleChmeseEFLwritingclass.2.2ApproachestostudiesofDMs

Asseen最℃mChaptefOne,dig宅fentte疆nshaveb∞ngiventoDMs,suchasdiscourseconⅡcctiVes(Blakemore,1987,1992),discollrseop啪torS(Redeker,1990,1991),discourse

D旬k,1979),semanticconjIlncts(Quirkpanicles(schomp,1985),pm鲫aticco皿ectiVes(Van

eta1.,1985),andsemenceco彻ectives(HallidayaIldHasan,1976).Thisdivers时ofterminologypresentsdi髓re】1t印proachestoDMs.These叩proachesmayfallintothreeprominentapproaches:coherenc嚣Ibasedapproach,FammaticaI—pragmatic印pmach,andcognitivc-pragmaticapproach.Inthefollowhgsectionswewilldiscussthethreeappmaches7

separately.

2.2.1Coherence-basedApproach

The

cohcrence-bas耐approach,focusingon

howDMscontributetodiscoursecoherence

semanticallyandpragmatically,givesmuchconsidemtiontothesemarI“cfeaturesaIldpragmaticfIlnctionsofDMs.Among血osewhoholdthecoherence-basedappmachintheresearchofDMs,noticeablercprcsentativesboth

see

are

Schj珩in(1987)andRedeker(1991).They

claimsthata11DMshave

shesuggests

DMs

as

prinladlycuingcohercnce

relations.Sch诵^n

indexicalfunctionstoindex

adjacent

unerarIcestome

comm嘶cators,and

a11alyzingDMsinherfive.planemodelinwllichcoherenceisdeveloped.11hecoherence.basedapproachtoDMswaspropQsed

s锄e

ofthe

are

byLenk(1998)who

holdsthatDMs

“cohereneeindica幻fs”,which如nctionnoto王llytoⅡlelocalc。herencebetw∞nuneranceunits,but

to

discoursecoherence

asa

wholewimout

comributingto

Ⅱleunerance

propositionalmeaning.

Forthesecoherence-basedappmachholders,whatDMsmoStconmbutetodiscourseis

to

showvariouscollerencereIations.However,tlliscoherence-basedapproachgives

no

psych0109icalexplanationwhy也espeal(ertriestoestablishtheintendedcoherencerelation

by

choosing

specmcDM,As

result,thecoherence.basedapproachcannotbeadequatefor

analyzingDMs.

2.2.2GrammaticaI.pragmaticAppmach

Sincethe1990’s,researcllershaveShiRedtheirstIldiestothepragmatic如nctionsof

DMs,andanalyzedthepragnlaticrolesofDMsindiscourse.Fraser(1990,1999)isthemost

南rce凡Iadvocateofttlis

perspective.Throu曲outhisstudies,Fraserfocuses

on

whatDMs

are

aIldwhattlleir掣ammaticalst{ltusis.Hecare如1lyallalyzesthesymacticpattemingofsome

DMs,aIldfIndsthattheydo

constitute

nota11

pattemsyntacticallyalike,thatis

tosay,theydonot

separatesyntacticcatego阱On

theotllerh如d,FrasermaintainsthatDMscontajn

s),IltacticfeaturesbutconveyrichpragrnaticconsiderDMs

as

f血ctionsindiscourse.Soheproposesto

analyzed

as

a‘‘pragmatic

the

class’’a11dDMsshouldbewell—defined

pragmaticcategory、vithin

gr猢ar

of

1anguage,because协eycontributetome

interprefationofanuttefatlce.

The

grammatical-pragmatic印pmachemphaSizes

as

thegrammatical

or

symactic

status姐d

or

propertiesofDMs,suchmeirwordcl懿s,syntacticpositions,sylltacticc01location

uses

constmints.Butt11ediscussionthatthespeakera11dt0guidethehearcl’tosegments

hasledtothe

DMstodirectutteranceinterpretation,

identi母alld舶derst趾d

therelationshipbetweenthcunerance

D】Ⅵsf}omthecognitiVe—pragInatic

psychologicalanalysisof

perspective.

2.2.3Cognitive—pragmaticApproach

ThecognitiVe’pragmaticapproachisbasedupon也eReleVanceTheoryproposedbyD.

SperberandD.wilson(1986/1995),Ⅵ血ich

isgenemllyrecognized

as

as

thetlleoreticalbaSeof

cogn“ivepragmatics.A

fewscholarssuch

Blm∞more(1987,1990,1992,2000,2004),

witllintlle

releVallce

meoretical

Rouchota(1996)havetemativelystudiedsomeDMs行amework.

B1akemorefocusesthe

infcrential

on

howDMsimposecons廿aints

on

hplic叭胛s.In

heropinion,itisconstI_ains

on

co咖ecnonexpressedbyDMsthataUowthemt0

hpose

contextualimplication.111usDMs

are咖died

as

signalsguidingunerallceinteIpretation

as

by

as

meansofwhichspea玉,crsdi印laymeirunderstandingoftheprecedingspeaker

well

irldicatinghowthefollowir培segmentisexpectedtobeprocessed.0nmeotherhand,using

DMs

as

si印postsaIldthussavingllimself靠omu彻ecessary

as

processinge行ort,callreachthe

speal【∞r’sintended

inte单retation

as协t

aIldeasilypossible.StiIIinmetheoreticaI

can

fhHneworkofRelevancethe

111eoⅨRouchota(1996)maintai芏1sⅡ1atDMs

co衄ect

notonly

adjacent

utteraIlces

butalsotheutcerallceandthecomext,andconstrainthehearer’s

an

inferemialprocesseS.Researcheswjthint11eRelevancetheoryfhmeworko丘h

accountfor廿lerole

impressive

DMsplayin

utteranceinterpretation.

Tb

surn

up,byrevealingsome

remar妇ble

propertiesofDMs,tllepast代searchhas

see

admirin舀yiaida伊eatgroundfornlePrcsemand如turcrese甜dlintKsfield.N话call

that

di疏rent

researcherShave

di疏rent

opinions

on

on

DMs,whichenable

usto

distinguishmeir

on

theoreticconcentrationsa11dViews

DMs.Thecoherellce.basedapproachfocuses

how

DMshelptobuilduporidenti母tlle

approach

relationshipbet、Ⅳeensegmentsofdiscollrse,whereasme

on

gr啪matical.pragmatic

concentratest】1e

analysis

ofpragmatic

mnctions

accordingtothelinguisticpmpeniesinlallguageproductionandintelpretation.ComparedwimmetwoapproachesabOVe,mecognitiVe巾ragmaticapproachnlaybemorepromisir唱inexplaininghowDMscollstrain也erelev8nceofthe

u龇ees

indiseollrseandthus

to髀ide

mehear甜toacbieVetheintef诏edinteIpretation.AtldReleVanceTheorymayprovide

strong

the

f‰1ework

analysisof

to

exploretlle

natureof

DMs.HoweV%all

few

the

researcherstaking

releVance—meoreticalperspectiVehaVeoIllyexplained

s印arateDMs.No

systematical

certaingroupofDMshas

everare

beenmade行ommecognjtive-pragmaticequallyconsciouslyprocessedbymehearer

aIl

perspectiVe.Incommunication,notallDMs

inuneranceinteIpretation.Thatis,notallDMsmake

equalcornributioninguidingthe

he勰r’s血妇pre诅tionprocess.CDMs

姒出other

DMs。TakingCDMs

as

are

regarded

as

being

ouf

hi曲ly

motiVatedincomparison

t}lema砸concemin

on

research,wewillpfo“de

brief

oVerviewof血edominamstudies

nextsectjon.

thcsyntactic-pragmaticclassiflcationofCDMsinthe

2.3ovenriewofstudies

on

CDMs

on

E盯lyresearchinDMswasmostlyfocusedparticularcharactefisticsand

certainseparateDMs,exploring血eir

on

fhnctions.While

thefocus

s印羽ateDMs

waSpreVailing

throughoutthe1980sand1990s,m明y

rese黜hersincluding

Schimin,Frasera11dB1akemore

mentionedabovesetfbrthnleirhuit如laIldsystematicdiscussionofthepropertiesoftheDMs,t11erolctheypiayindjscourSe,andwhatthegrammaticalstatusofDMsjs,includingtheir

syntactic趾d

semaIltic

c№teristics.In

therecentresearch,manyresearchersreturntome

inVestigationofsomeindividualDMs,espcciallysome1argeliteratureHa】1dayand

on

p枷cuIar

aIld

CDMs.Thcrcis

a硒rly

of

6北includingLako伊s(1971)semantic

aIldextenlaI

anddenialofeXpectation6“r,

Hasan’s(1976)intemal6以DaScalKatriel’s(1977)notion

cancellative6zf『,a芏1d

Scllif衔n(1987)、Ⅳith

herreferential,functional6“f.Fraser

a11d

Malamud-Mokowsl(i(1996)made

discoursemarkers.ThereRelevance

seen

as

are

comrastive

analysis

set

ofEnglishandspanishcontrastivctheCDⅣIsintheframeworkof

somemeorislswho

aII

Theo够Iten(1998,2001)o虢red

clarify

anaIysisofthemeaIling

of口触。蚴whichis

encoditlgpfocedllral

attemptsto

iⅢ'0n删on血at

t11e

collstmi王1smeinfbrentialprocess.Blakemorc

(2000)made

thenotionofproceduralmeaningbyanalyzing6“fand

meaningof6甜ontlle

basisofmeworkof

"Pv盯肪P肠55.Ha】l(2004)reanalyzed

BlakemoreandItencognjtivelyHo、Ⅳcver,onlyanalyzeCDMs

as

Fraser(1999)madeattemptstosystematically

distinctsubclass丘Dmthesyntactic—scmamicperspectivesanddescribe

uses

eitherthcacceptable

oftheseCDMs

or

therokthcyplayin如ediscollrserelations.

Aldloughthisapproachis1yingin廿ledangerofdescribingthesuperficialpropertiessharedbysomecenaingr01巾ofCDMsalldoften

too

su腩rs

fromthecdticismforclassmcationbeing

narrow

or

broad,asketchoftheresultsoftheamlysis、vinsurelyshed1ight

onollr

researchand

enli曲tenus

tosomeextentonthea11alysisof

on

CDMs.Int11ef0110、vingsections,1

willbrieflyiIl仃oducethea11alysismadebyFraser2.3.1SyⅡtacticPatternsof

theCDMs.

CDMs

are

TheCDMslistedinChapter0neand

cQnsideredtosharediff毫∞ntsyntacticpropemes

do∞t

allpa拄emSyntacdcallyalike.Accordingto

proposedmecaIlonical

Fraser(1999),也ereare

first

four

case

di恐rent

inv01Ves

panems,althou曲he

thecDMsco甩fm9

Dn

fomas<s1.DM+S2>.The

fo£孕ec细f如,琏∞”v口坩e巩Pw九so,矗Dwewc珂PVP,胁P胁只加胛e历P胁墨

ands,fn11lesemarkers盯ellsuallytakenS2,wheretheS2

occurs

as

f船∞以扩盯,卫D,z历Po历口r矗口胛Z

an

as

mecitation

foml.HeretheCDMintroduces

Thisisillustratedin(3):

separatesylltacticsegment.

(3)a。JohnwaSlateinleavinghome。幽wevPr,karrived

b,Harryisno

Asecond

case

on

time.

gcntlemaIl,(加觑∞触留∥,heisarudebore.

one

involvesoIllyCDM,6“tIt

10

calloccur

both缸initial?S2position,like

向DwPv窖r,a11d

asa

coordinatejoiningS1aIldS2,asshownin(4),?

(4)a.Johnenjoys

b.John

riding.日甜Harry1ikeswalking.riding,6“rHarry1ikeswalking.maynothave

enjoys

or

Mowover,6“fmay

pauseaRerit,whjIemostoftheocherCDMshaw

a11

obligatorypause.Forexample:

(5)a.HewantedtogotoGraceland.口“f,heagreedtogotoDisney

see

World加J膪ad

b。Hanycan’t

AtIlird

case

Very

wdl,B玑加印肋铘^becanh%rperfectly-

involves血e

CDMs出印妇mi肌矗口驴,胁印妇矽∞趣砌a砂,伽co肝2pdrjJo玎

likethefirstcl雒s,h1订oducing

indepcndentS2.

(WttⅣtoth{斟thn让.{ncontr∞t(tomifhmtsAhnf).{nStendf彭(doin勘thi蚋hnt).rdmer(1hdn

^拗历招竹砌r,.nleseCDMs缸1ction

in

aJl

However,eachoccurswiththepronoull(misorthat)fiIIedin

occurs

areverse

wimamodi6edforInofSI,and

pattem.

on

(6)a.Jolln

waslateinleaVinghome.肌叩加,^坦hearrived

time.

aIldslept.

b.Jjmdidn’tgoto

sch00】today肺膪耐矿加括,hes叼edathome

cDMs口触D“曲and

Thefourthpattcminvolves也e

whP阳m,whichintroduce

segmemonly

whenitiscombinedsyntacticallywithS1.

(7)a.JollIl

waslateinleaVinghome,础^D嘞heamvedontime.

mascot

is

b.Thc陕mocrat’s

el印hant.

Compare讲tll

donkey,w丙已膨甜meRepublican’smascot

isan

mefollowillgtwocXamples:waslateinlea“ng

(8)a.John

home.胁wPy即j

heamved

on

time.

an

b.TheDemocrat’smascotis

donkey.如co”f,甜CtheRepublicanlsmascotis

el印haIlt.

Infact,the

toexhausta}i

CDMs

are

ac“veandnexibIein也eposmonofule

se疵nce.Itisatlardjob

sy呔lcticpatte咖ngofCDMs.T酞e砌weV盯as垃te

whcrcitin仃oducest11eS2aIldtlleS2

caIl

occursaSa

example,whichisincIudedseparatesymacticsegInem.

inthefirst

case

Thefollowingse眦encesshowthat而DwPVPr

appearnotoIllyattheinitialpositionofS2,

butalsoattheendofS2.Thesemicolonalsomakesitpossible

SentenCe:

t0印pearin

t|lemiddleofthe

(9)a.It’smillinghard.IstillwaIlttogo,^DwPw—

b.It’sraininghard;矗ow口ver,I

2.3。2

still啪ntto

go.

syn纽eticBp髑ofCDMs

A11theexamplesofCDM8presentedaboveallconsiStedof

declamtivesentence,then

CDM,followedbyal】CDMs

caIl

second

decl锄tive

sentence:<Declarative.CDM+Declarative>.While

arean

occur

intllispanem,ttlerc

othcrsyntactictypeswDnhyconsider;ng.WeinteⅡDgative

or

6ndchatonlyfollowing

6“,and肋wPl’P,inm)duce

impemt押econsⅡ1lction、vhen

declarative,asshownin(10):

11

(10)a.The

b.【t’s

AndⅡ1eCDi订s

shipmentofcaIldyhas

aⅡived.四“棚DwPv蹦don’ttouchit

today四“f/舶wPVe,,when、vill

as

alri曲t

suewasn’there

as

shebeabletocome?

f,z5≠e矗讹f弁Pr

well6甜rand矗DwPvPr

can

imroduceS2wheninthe

pattem<Imperative、CDM+DecIarative>,硒showllin(“):

(11)a.1lIke

1etteLB“£亿幻¨'PvP,Idon’twantyou

to

sentitrighta、Vay.

b,Don’ts“down.如sfPd西1wamyoutotake

walkwithme.

Notematthesegmentin仃oducedbytheCDMhastheforceofthesyntacticfornlisthatof

directive

even

thou曲

declarative.An<Imperative.CDM+Imperative>sequence

occllrs晰mthesefburas、wllaso玎腑Po腑8r^口耐a11do门抽P∞竹f阳唧

(12)a.’I放e

letter.骞材暑锄wevgr,tellmeifIamgoingtoofast.

tobaceo.胁即僦p勉妇P,,chewmestu行(inStead>.

c.Keepthefait}1.(抽如D砌e,^盯,砒don’tbestupid曲outit.

b.Don’tsmoked.Don’t

stop.伪腑e

cD以f,嗍keepgoinguntilyousee血eredhouse.

are

TheremaininRfourcombinationsdonotoccur.Thesefacts

summarizedinT曲le2.

BU

D.D

oKoK0K0K

H0oKoK0KoK

OToK

CNoK

CM

OK

CVoK

NVOK

INOK

RAoK

CYoK

D-№

I.DI.1

0KoK

OKOK

0K

OKOK

I-Q

Q?M/Q

T曲le

2:Co?occurrence

^女

ofCDM丽th

Syntactic聊es

RA=mther;

CY=on

the

<BU_but;HOHhowever;0T=onⅡ掉othef

ha咄CN=incont潞t;CM-=in∞mparison;

CV弋onversely;NV=neve肺eless;IN-instead;

D.declarative;12i删)emtive;Q2question)

cont删;

2?3?3COmpOsitiOnOf

CDMs

occur

Fraser(1999)claims6讲isbyfhmemostgeneraloftlleCDMsand“can

slotswhere

no

insome

omerCDMs

arc

peminedaIld

canoccur

int}lesameutterallcewimneadyall

asa

CDMs.All,except

D咒珐g∞撵黝秒(andofeourse口f珐。昭盎andw豇P您甜)'canoccurinS2

eatit.

CDMwhenS2isin仃oducedby6“t

(13)a.Ilikecheese.B玑on折PD厢P,而日甩吐Iprobablyshouldn’t

b.Jimgave

booktoh厦ar)‘6“‘加cD疗f,‘础乇DaVegaveher

doU.

c+A:Fredmaynotl汝ememovie.

B:?日她on腩eco竹印口fy,heratherenjoyedit.

nshouldbe

noticedmat^owevP,apparemlywouldnot

12

co-occllr

with6甜ata11.The

compositionof6甜and肋wPv盯isdisagreeableandcommonredundancy.Eit}ler6w

attheexample:

no

or

矗owPvP,su伍ces;oneshouldbetaken,andtheothcrlefc.L00k

(14)?B甜f-tmustA1though

beremembered,矗Dw8VPr,thatt王leGoVemmenthad

guarar】tee.

mostofCDMsconformtotheregularcompositionalsemanticrules柚d

ca叫ot

catl

combincwithotherconstrLIctions

createacomplex

one

mside,CDM加∞肋铘rdoes

notIHlde唱ome

rulc锄d

wimwords1ikeco删p如船orfo船t

2.3.4Sema皿ticPropertiesofCDMs

AsisshownaboVe,CDMspossesssomeparticularsyntacticpropertiesdistinguishedfromomerDMs.However,t11eresuItsof廿lesyntacticpropertiesdiscussedofCDMs

are衙

fbmunderstandingCDMsbetter.Fewresearcheshavetouchedthedomainofsemantic

characteristicssharedbyCDMswhosedistinctions、vi血eachother

areso

subtlea11dhardIy

explicable.Fraser(1996)a唱ues

mat也ere

are

specmc“meaningdistinctions”betweeneach

tolist廿le

core

ofCDMsmentionedabove.Hehasmade

a啦mptsmeaningsofsomemain

toisoJate

an

CDMs.Inmostc孙es,studiesofindiVidualDMshaVeattempted

semanticcontentforeachmarkeLSuch

“corc

invariant

as

inVari皿tsem锄tic

contentisusuallyreferredto

its

meanm岔’.(Schourup,1985;Schif黼n,1987;Fraser,1990).ForCDMs,becauseof也e

ofmeaning研m

eachomer,itis

toother

closeness

one

o矗en曲possibleto

detemlineme

core

meaningof

CDMwithoutre南Ⅱing

CDMs.

soInc

When

sketchingtlle

core

meaningsof

maitlCDMs,wenoticet11atinsome

cases

thecontrastiVemeaning

c删ot

beinferred丘omSldirecUy.Byelabomtingthepreviousa她jtementoftlledi丘erentpossiblecomrastivecontextsin

research,Fr雏er(2005)prcsented

Englisha11dexploredtoⅥmatextemtheCDM6地wllich

heconsidefs

as

theprimaryCDM,

occurs证eachofmem.ByscrutiIlizingmecon打astivecoDtextsinEnglish,Fraserproposedmatthereis

major

distinction-directvs.indirectcontrastivecontexts.Adlrectcon仃astive

contextoccurswhe珥forSl—CDM—S2,矗ispossibletocomparemeexpIicit

i唧retation

as

ofS2withmeexplicitinte巾retationofS1andthereby

derivc计lat

call

beconstrued

meaningmlsemantic

conⅡ_astiVecomext

contrastofthe

type

signaled

bymepanicularCDM,Anindirect

occurs

when,for

sequenceS1一CDM—S2,nDmeaningfuldirect

contrastcallbemadebet、ⅣeentheeXplicitinterpretationsof

S2孤d

S1.

as

Witllin

each帅e

ofcontrastivecontcxt,廿lere

are

sevemlsubtypes

sho、v11inme

followingtable:

DirectCDMsCoInparativecontrast

Paired—oppositeconnastReplacementcontrastCorrectivecontrastS2comradicts

inferenceofS1aincomparison;incontraStcoHverselvinstead:ratheronnlecontrarythecontextualaltllou曲;but;aUcontrarytos眦e;

only;expectation;despite;except;

h0、vever;evenso;inspiteof;nevertheless,still

IndirectCDMsS2contradictSabut;except;only

presuppositionofSlS2contmdicts趴but;except;onlyemailmentofSl

S2contmdicts

anaIlaspectofactbut;exc印t;only;oncOntrarytheillocutionaryconveyedbySl

T,Ible3:DirectandIndirectCDMs

InalltheseteIldistinctconnastiVecome硪s,ofmedircctCDMs,metirstfollrcomextsallpemit6ⅢtooccuLThefifmcontextofr印1ac黜∽ntpe皿_lits6姚but、晡thomthef瑚把ddsense,whilethesix廿lcorrectiVecontr嬲tcontextdoesnotindirectCDMs,6甜mayoccurpe肌it6甜tooccllratall-0fmeinall,signalingcomraldictionwithmeinfcrenceofS1.

onHo、vcver,tlleclassmcationbased

anyexplanation.direc恤essonlyprovidestlledescriptioniIlsteadofgiving

14

CHAPTERTHREE

ASKETCHoFTHEORETICALBACKGRoUNDOF

RELEVANCETHOERY

3?lReleVance’Iheory

ReleVancenleory(RT)isacog血iVepsychologicalmeoryandaninferentialapproachtopragmatics.Itanemptstoanswernotonlyphilosophicalquestionsaboutthenatureofcom瑚uIlication,butalsopSychoIogicalquestioIl5abomhowtlleinteIpretationprocessLul如ldsintllehearer’smind(Wilson,2001).matRelevance111eoryclaimstoprovide

aisatheoryofcogmtiveprocessesa11dtheoryofcomm嘶catiO玛onwhichwebasetoaccountforhow

utterancesare{nterpreted.IthaSbeennearlytwentyyearsnowsince壬汀Was丘rstin廿0dⅥ司bySperbera11dWilson.11letwoeditionsofttlebookhavebeenstudiedandcommemedbyco哪lesstheorists.Myar91衄emsinthisp印eronmeCDMs埘ll

cl础tybemainlybasedonReleVanceTheoryformeore廿calsupport.Forthesakeof

discussion,inthischapterI、villgive

generalaandconvenienceinlatersI【etchofsomebasicnotionsofrelevanceandtwDp曲cipleswhichlay也efoundationfor也erdevance—meoreticapproachtoCDMs.3.2ostensive—iⅡf.erentialComnlunication

MosthumancommullicationssharconeesSentialfeature,nlatis,theexpressiona11d

ol】rrecognitionofintentions,bomvcrbalandnDn—verbal.Asspeakers,、vemusttrytoexpress

in南mla虹0nemcientiyafldm越障ourh。afers爬cognizeourintentions

stateoftoin内nn亡hemofsomeaf瞄rs.Itisgencrallyaccepted也atspeakersalwayshavethetelldencytomaketheir

orinte小ionmanifest.Wbcallsuchbehaviorostensivebehavior

ostensiVebehavjormaybeusedtoprovidetwolayersofsimplyostension.AnactofinitialIayerofjnfomation:an

ainfb册ation,whjch

theinfonnation.It

in把n芏ion.thespeake‘pointsouttomehearer,aIldsecondIayerofinfbnIlation,whichmayinv01Vethespeakcr’sindicatingthathehasintentionallymanifestedtomehearercanthereforebedescribedintermsofaninfonnativeandcommunjcative

a.Theinf0ⅡIlativeimention:

1、heintentiontoinfonn

b.anaudienceofsomething.Theconlmunicativei11tention:

TheintentiontoinfonnIheaudienceofone’si耐’omlativeintention.

Itisnothardtoseehowthe血1filhnentoftllecommuIlicativeintemion

15canleadto血e

±mflllmentoftlle

infornlatlve

ime埘on:the

an

realizationtllat

reason

tnlstwonhycommunlcator

intendstomakeyoubelievesometllingis1986/1995、

excelIemfor

belieVing.(sperber&wilson

Incontrast,ashearers,、Vemustrecognizewhatmespeakers

intendto

in士、o舯us

of_

Whcn

thespeakerencodesherintendedmessagebasedon也ecodemodela11dtraIlsfersthe

infonn丑tiontot}lehearerwithintcmion,comnluIlicationwiUnotbesuccessfuliftheheareronly

comprehends

the

utterance

bydecoding

the

1inguisticmeaJling,

1nfercnce

to

isthe

indiSpensableintheprocessofrecognizingtllerealintentionoftllespeal(erfAccording

iⅢbremialmodel,acommuIlicatorprovidesevidenceofherimention

mea芏1恤g,whichis

t0convey

cenain

in鼢钮by岫audienceon也ebasisoftheevidence

willmakethispointciearer:

use

provided.(Wilson&

Sperber,2004).Thefoiiowingexamplo

(15)A:CouldI

yollrprinter?

B:I锄just

Aprovides

abouttogotothclectllre.

encoding

1inguistically

in

ma血festrequestofusingB’sp—nterby

inteITogativcfbrnl.Itcostslittleeff.ortandtimeforBtorecogrIizetlle血tentionofA,srequest.Ontlleothcrh卸d,B

o腩rs

aIl

iIldircctansweLA

can

supplyt11econtextualassunlptionin

conclusion

(16a),and

inferring.

gettheiInpIicatcdpremisein(16b)andimplicatedin(16c)a&r

(16)a.BisbuSya11dabouttoleavenow

b.IfBisaboutto

1eave,Ac籼ot

use

theprimeL

c.Ac咖ot

propositions

as

use

theprimer.

Asisshown行omtheexample,itisclearthatinfcrcnceis

prelnisesand

fonnaloperationthattakes

yields

propositions懿conclusions.Given

setofdeductive

mles,andgivena

Inthetransfcrringspeal【eL

setofpremises,thedeductiVeconcluSionsareautomaticallygenefated.

above铽ample,t11e

whole

courSe

ofcommunjcationinvolvesthemanifestly

the

i11f0珊acion

aIld

tothehearer,arld

infbrring孤didenti匆ing

l【ind

of

inte埘ons

ofthe

Sperber

Wilson

callt11is

comm倒cation

afe

ostensive—inferential

saIIle

communication.1nfcremialcommuIlicationandostension

one

andthe

process,b“C

seen丘Dmtwodiffbrentpointsofview:AspeakerisiflVolVediIlostensionandiIlfbrence.Ostensive.inferentialcOmmunicationconsistsofmakillgmanifcstto

one’s

hearerinaudience

an

intentiontomakemanif色st

baSiclayerofinfoml“on.

can

Fromt11eanalvsisabove,we

arriveat

concluSionthati11ordertosucceedin

communication,t|lespeakermustdesigntoat廿actthehcarer’s

atte嘶on.DMs,as

such

panicular

categorywithouttrutllconditionsand“linguisticallyencodedclucswhichsignalthespeal(er’spotentialcommunicative

intentions"(Fraser,1996),are

considered

asa

1inguiSticdeVice

thatmakest11eimentionofthespeakermaIlifestandproVideseVidenceforthehearerto.mfer廿1eimentionofthespeakeLIIlthissense,thestudyofCDMsbearsmuchValueinresearching

16

cognition,comm砌cationandcomprehension.Tk

cormunicationiscmcialina11alyzingthcDMsa11dCDMs

inthe

not沁nofwell.

ostenSive—int’erem“

as

3.3ThePrincipleofRelevance

According

to

Sperbera11dWilson,communication

that

are

results抒omtllebeliefthat

h啪aIls

hlllll肌

tendtopayattentiontothosephenomena

mostrelevaIntothem.Thefktthat

as

comm吼ication

isreIevallce?orientedis、ⅣideIy∞cepted.ReIevanceistreated

pmpenyof

iTlputstocognitiVeprocessanddenI圮dintermsofcogllitivee任宅ctandp∞cessinge丘10rt.CognitiVe

e丘’ects,also

called

contextual

e圩’ects,areachieved

wben

newlypresemed

info玎nationinteracts、vithand

contextofexiSt;ngassumptionSinoneoftheth珲eways.S职rber

Wilson

illustraCe血esepossibilitiesthroughthefollowing

ex锄ples.

info衄ation

alone.

or

Thefirstfonnofcontextuale丘bctiscontextualimplicationthatis血mlcrwKch

c籼0tbededucedfr啪ei也crmeexistingass啪ption

up“m

mefollowing血ought:

raillin舀I’11stayathome.

me

n洲information

Supposethatonewakes

(17)a.Ifit’s

HelooksoutofthewindowanddiscOvers:

(17)b.Tt’s

railling.

Fromtheexistillginfbnnation:

ass啪ption(17a)andthenewinformation(17b),wecandeducethefuIthcr

(17)c.I,llstayathome.

TflesecondfomIofcontextuaIe丹bctisthes订engmeningofexistingwakes

ass啪ptions.0ne

up,he撕ng

pattcring衄tIleroo£andfomsthehypomesis.

(18)a.It’s

Hegoesto

rajIling.

t11e州ndow,looksout,discoVers(18b),andstrcmg廿】肋shisassu】即tions.

raining.

(18)b.It’s

The

tllird

fo衄of

contextual

eff&tisthecomradictionandeliminationofold

ass啪ptions.AssuIllp廿ons

contradicto叮assumptions

placedinmemoryhaveVaryingdegreesof

are

s帆gm.When

one

tWo

deriwd,the豫}aker

one

isabandoned.Thus

wakesup,

he撕ng

apatteringon

t11e

roof'aIldfonns也ehypothesis:

(19)a.It’s

rajning.

Hegoestomewilldowand1DDksout.Thistime,however,hediscoversthatcontradictory

to

actually(】9b)is

hisearlyassumption:

notrailling,bmtherearecatsontheroof.

(19)b.It’s

Itisthusclailncd廿latnewlypresentedinfbHnationisrelevaIltiIloniywhen矗achieVesconfex£ual

contextwhenand

e氐c括主n

that

contex£,翘dtkgreafer出e∞ntextuaie僚cts,

thegreaterthereleVance.However,contextualeffectsdonotcomefkely.Theycostsome

17

mentalefrorttodcrive.The粤弓atertheprocessingeⅡbrtneededtoderivethem,thelowertherelevancewillbe.andvice

Relevanceof

an

versa.

inputto

an

indiVidual:

a.Omertllingsbeingequal,也e掣eaterthepositivecognjtive

processingtime.

b.O也ermingsbeingequal,meFe砒ertlleprocessing

releVanceoftheinputtot11eindi“dualatmattime.

TheirⅣerse

an

e髓cts

achievedby

inpu匕thegreatert11erclevanceoftheinputtot11eirldividualatttlat

e肋n

expandcd,tllelo、Ⅳerthe

correl撕on

ofe丘brta11dreleVallce

helps

us

torealize

matmeprocessing

e丘brtneededtoderiVecontexnlaleffbctsisofcmcialimponance.Ifprocessingeabrtwere

nottakeninto

accoum,humanbeingswould

t0

conti肌e

toprocessanewlyreceivedStimulus

are

endlessly.However,according

mostrelevarltpossible

one

wilson(1998),speakersnotalwaysexpectedtogiveme

inf0肌ation,or

topresentitintheleaste丘brt—demandingwayOnthe

side,thespeakcrmaynothavethein|'0Hnationmat伽ehearerwomdfindmostreleVant;

or

hcmaybe

uHwillingto百vcit,or咖ablet0nlinkofitatthe缸le.Onmeother

or

side,1ackof

time,1ackofabilitymosteconomicalstill

not

stylisticpreferencesmaypreventtllespeakerexpressinghimselfinthe

mostrelevantutterancethespedker

call

way.Wh砒ismorc,thethi“kofmay

be

relev锄t

enoughtobewomltllehearer’sattention,ThismeallsitisoptiInal

rclevancet11att11ehearerseeks,arldnottIlcmaximalrelevance,inthesearchofrelevance.Thenotionofoptimalrelevanceisexplairledint、Ⅳopremises:

Anostensivestimulusisoptimallyrelevantto

a.

a11

audierlceim

nisrclevamn

is

tlle

cnou曲tobe、vonh也e

relevant

one

audience’sprocessingefrort;

wim

b.most

compatible

communicator’sabil“ies

and

preferences.

According

to(a),the

hearerisentiuedtoexpectmeostensivestimlllust0beatleastrcleV如t

enoughtobewonhprocessing.Accordingentitledto

even

to(b),t11e

hearerof

an

ostensiVestimulusis

higherexpectationsthaJlthis.ThespeakerwantStobcunderstood.nis

as

thereforeinherinteresttOmakeh盯oStensivestimulusunderstand.Inotherwords,inostensive—infbrentialcommullicatestllestimulushe

uses

easy

as

possibleforthchearerto

speakernecessarily

co删叭商cation,the

What

isrelevantto也eheareLisconlmⅧ=1icatedtotbebest

ofthecommunicator’sl(110wledgeisthattlleostensivcstimulusisreleVantWonh

the

he盯er’s

attention.

Finally,

as

enou曲to

second,

be

or

Sperberfollows:

and

Wilson

definethe

commutlicative,PrincipleofRelevance

communicative

PrincipleofRelevance

Everyostensivestimulusconveys

Thisprincipleistheconsequenceofgeneralclaim

presumptionofitsownoptimalreleVance.

moregeneralclaimabouthumancognition.T11ismore

is肿wcalledme

First,orCognitivePrinciple:

12

CognitivePrincipIeofReleVance

HumancognitiontendstobegearedtothemaximizationofreleVance.

Anostensivestimulusisdesignedtoanractthehearer’sattemion.GiventheCognitivePrincipleofRelevance,humanbeings’tendencytomaximizerelevatlce,ⅡlecommuIlicatormereforee11couragesherhearerto

pres啪e

matitisreleVantenoughtobewofthprocessing.

Thisisthebasisforttlesecond,orCommunicative,PrincipleofRelevaIlce,whichappliesspecifically

to

ostensive-inferentialcommunication.FromthcCommunicativePrincipleof

Relevance,wegetthemntmat也eeXpectationthatitisalso

hearerisentitledtogoaheadandimerprctanyutcerallcein

CognjtivePrincipIeofRelevallceis

optimallyrelevant.Howev%the

import趾t,since

it

achowledges

mefactthathuman

co印ition

isorielltcdtowardsthe

highestpossiblereleVancewIlenprocessinginputs.

Ingeneml,Sperberand

Wilson(1986)claim也atme附ncipleofRelevallceisadequate

enoughinitsowntoexplainhowlir培uisticme锄ingandcontextualfactorsintcractto

dete肌me

utterallce

int唧怫tation

aII

or

verbalcoInprcllension.Panicularly,thespeakcr

canllse

thelinguisticfornlofbetWeeIlimonational

u舵r姐ce

to

guide

the

interp瞅ationprocess;just

as

thenaturallinks

stnlctIlre趾d

pragmatic

eeftainpropertiesofconteXta11dcontextIlaltheoretical

apprOach

can

iHh却fetatioll,Soalangllagemightdevelope艉cts.InthissenSe,thcrelevance-based

cenain

linguistic

elemems

arise

in

eXplainwhy

andhow

communication,disclosingthespeaker’scoⅡmmnicativeimentionsa11dguidingt11ehearer’sinterpretationofherunerances.Panicul盯ly'the

ReleVanceTheory

as

provides

general

explanationofwhatnon-臼1nh-conditionalelements,suchAnothcrcmcialissuethathas

DMs,aredoingindiscourse.

prominentroleinmereleVance-meoreticaccountofutterance

interpretationa11dDMsiscontext、vhichisdiffbrem行om也e打aditiorIalconception.

3.4ReIevance-basedContext

As

topicof擎eatsignificallce,contexthaslongbeenthefocusin

as

numberof

diSciplines,such

sch01ars

phiioSophy,logic,soci01ing伍stics,sem趾ticsandpragmatics.Many

havecontributed

includingMalinowski,FirthHalliday,Hymes,Lyons,LeVinson

are

greatlytomestudyof也econtext,whoseViews

generallycategorizedintothe订aditional

Viewsofcontext.Althou曲metraditionalcontextcontainsis

a讯dcrallge

ofi11咎ediems,which

are

adV趾tageousinhcIpingme

hearer埘th

lliscomprehensionofcoInmunication,t11ere

fatallim“ationsinthenotionofme打aditionalconteXt.Accordingt0thetraditionalviews,

contextisconsideredas也e

objective“out

or

there”or

h啪an’s

l(Ilowledgcwhichisnearly

all—includedandisdetem五ned

giveninadvanceofthecommunieationprocess.Asthe

to

modemmeoryofcommunicationdevelops,moreaIldmoreattentionhasbeenpaid

thattostudy也ecomextintenTlsofcommunicationis

1q

thefact

moree£’ectiveway.However,the

traditionalviewsofcontext,

madequate

inthe

explatlatorypower,cannotproVide

an

appropriateinterpretationofhowthecontextinnuencesthehearer’scommunicationprocess.

InordertodeveIop

di位rem

viewoftheconteXt,Sperbera11d

to

Wilson

proposethe

notionofcognitiVeenviromnent.According

mcm,humatlbeings

are

engagedinacquiring

infonnationf如mt11eoutsideworldandconstructiIlgbestpossiblemeⅡtalrepresentationofitforthewholelife,whichthencomposesthe

co印itive

enviromentof

a11

individuaLDueto

di艉remphysical

infe∞nceandSperberand

a.

enviro啪e址s

and

panicul州ydi行crentcognitiveabilities(perce砸on,

one

rnemory,etc),cog王litive

definemecogIlitivc

en“ronmemsofindividualsdi矗hf如mano山eL

Wilson

env曲nmem

as

f0110ws:

A岛ctismaIIifeSttoaniⅡdividualatthattimeofr印托sentingitprobablytrue.

giventimeifandonlyifheiscapableat

as

mentallyandacceptingitsrcpresentation

tnje

or

b.

Acogmtive

enviromentofan

individualis

set

offktsthat

are

manifesttohim.

(SperberaIldWilson,1995)

Anindividual’stotalcogn“iVeenvironmentismesetofalltlleassuInptionsthatheperceive

or

can

infer:alltheassumptionsmat

or

are

malli&sttohinl.T0be瑚anifestistobe

notionofmaIlifestnessis

perceptibleinferablewithoutbeing

ir啦ediatcly烈si丘ed.The

cogtlmve

ma拄erofdegree,weakerthaIlk珏owlcdgeandaSsumptioninsense.Any

assumption,whetkr

tme

or

false,maybe

mallifestin

envir0脚ent

if也eenVironrnemproVides

s试cientevidenceforitsadoption.Itconsistsofnotolllyalltheassumptiollsmatheisaware

oe

butalsoa11lheassumptionsmatheiscapableofbecomingawareoeinhisphysical

one

enviroment.In

asSumptions

are

word,manifestnessis

superordinatenotiontowhichknowled_gcaⅡd

bom

subject.

Then,on血ebasisofmeofcontext:itis

co弘iti:veenvironmcnt,SperberaIld

WilSondeVeloptlleirView

psychologicaleonstnlct,asubsctoftheheawr’seog加tiveenviro]嘲ent。Itis

theseassumptions

aII

rathcr饥眦theactIlal

statesofthcwodd,whichaffecttheimerpretationof

as

unerance.Inmissense,comeXthereisnottreatedofmore

or

giVencommon掣olmd,butrather

are

as

set

1essaccessibleitemsofinf.0nnationwhich

or

storedin

short—tem

and

encycIopedicmemoriesnotionmat

can

ma血festi11theph”icalenvimnment.Socontextis

Very、vide

include矗rlyphenomenonentertailledbymehumanmind,rangingf幻m

encyclopedicknowledge,physicalconteXt,t0linguisticcontext.Thesefktorsdetenninenotsinglecontextbut

rangeofpossiblecontexts.Aswe

can

see,tllecontextisconsjdered

as

parcoft11ecognjtiveenvironment,whichisinunediatclyemployedineachinterpre.【ation.Therefore,thecognitiveenVironrnentproVides

potcntialrangeofcontexts.Thehearer

choosesthecontextualaSsumptionsfromhiscogflitiveenvironmentforhisinterpretationof

utteratlces

incommllllication.These

can

assumptions

as

are

stored

Therefore,thecomext

bcclassified

follows

20

iIl觚s

inttlreepansofmemory.

ofmemorysources.Firstly,the

physicalcontext.Here,mephysicalcontext

asc锄otbeconsideredast11eobjective“outthere”orinnletraditional也eoryofthecontext.Actually,tbephysicalworldhasbeencognized

byaninteI_Il“zedindividualandbecomessomeassumptionsofhiscognitiveenvirolllllent.

Secondly'theco—tem.Alltheassumptionsrcma洫ingintheshon—te玎nmemoryinthecommunicationpmcessconlposet11eco—text.Th砷ly’meknowledgestnlcture.IncDmmunication,tllehearel‘谢Uemployassumptions舶mhisknowledgestmctllreinthe

canlon分teHnⅡ蛤moryforhisintefp豫镪tionQf

besub—classifiedimothree

coQmtivecomextisshownasu琏efances.Genera王ly,theknowledges饷ctureandtypes:lo西calent彤lexicale曲yf.oHows:encycl叩edicemryThe

FigurelCIassi矗cationofContext

Witmnthetraditionalvlewsofthecontext.1ttendstolistallsonsofthecomextIlal

aingredientsrclatedtothecommunicationevems,motherwords,廿lecontextisgiven.As

result,thecontextanalysisisdimculttobemanagedinactualapplication.Incon仃ast,SperberaIldWilsonconsiderthecontextassele☆d矗om

0nemeto协lcallcog凼veen、,iromentforeachcommunicationprocess.Inmisway,onthe

contextual协gredientswhilefocusing

theotherhand,mespeakerandonhalld、veavoidt11econfIlsingofcomplexthecontextselectionprocessesinhurnan’smind.Onactiverolesinhca删?playcoⅡ皿llllication.The

caIlspeakcrcanempIoysomememodstoguidecommu血cationandhearerchooseassumptionsforhis

interpretation.ThereleVance-basedcontextisdynamicinsteadofbeingstatic.

HoweVer,this

Accordingt0poses柚otherandquestion:whatistheprincipleforthechoiceof廿1econtext?selectionofaSpe她rWilson,也epanicularcontextatagiventimeisdeteHninedbythesearchforrelevaIlce.Thechoiceofthecontextisgovemedbytheprincipleofoptimalrelevance.Ont量leone}珊d,thespedker’sutteranceshouldbearsomerelevancetotheheareranditis恤emostreIevantonemathecanmake;ontlleotherhand,thehearershouldmakesomee丘’orttoachieveenoughcognitiveefrectandhisefrortshouldnotbeunjustmable.

To

contextssurnup,the厅锄e、vorkofReleVanceTheorydistinguishesⅡ1epotentialrangeofandthecontextactuallyemployedineachimerpretationprocess:thecognitive2l

enviromTIentandtheco譬nitivecontext.Wit场n如efclevance-baSedcontext,weconsiderationofnumerousandcomDlicatedcontextualassumptionsaccessone’scanavoidthefactorsbutfocusonhowlimitedmindtoformtheconteXtfortheinterpretation.Moreover,the

orrelevance_basedcontextisdvnaIIlic.Thecomextisnotdeternlinedgiveninadvanceof

commu血cationbutchosenintllepmcessofcommunication.ChoosingthecontextuaJass啪ptionsisguidedbytheoptiIIlalrcleVance.

CHAPTERFoUR

CDMs

andUtteranceInterpretation

4.1CognitiVe

Mo娃yatio珏forEmployingCDMs

theo强we

arriveattheconclusionthat

With

thesupportofmefhme、ⅣorkofRelevaIlce

humancommunicationf01lowsthegeneralprinciplethatthespeakeral、vaysautomaticallydesirestoproduceuttcranceswhich

can

call

yieldadequatecontextual

an

e疵cls,so

thatthehearer

paytlleleastprocessing

e晒rt

a11dselect

appropriateassllr]叩tiontoacllievethe

cognitiVeeffbctswheninterpretingt11eutterance.Socommunicationalwaysinvolvesbonlthespeaker’sa11dthehearer’sinf0玎nationprocesscs.Spcrbcrand

as

an

Wilson

regardcommu茄cation

an

ostensive—i《宅rentialprocess、Frommes弦akcr’spoilltofview,communicationis

overt-demonstrativeprocess.Byseemrelevallttothe

he渊andhenceiswonhthehearer’sattention

producing姐ostensivestimulus,thespeakermustmakeit

top1?ocessit.Fromme

hearer’spointofview,communicationis

coven-demonstrative—inferentialprocess.The

to

hea阳ronlyattendstomeostensivestimulusthatisrclevantmostreleVant

llima11dtcndstoconstructme

ass啪ptions

aIldpmcessesinmisconteXt.Inomerwords,thehearerisentitled

tointerpreteVeryutterancemmesmallestaIldmostaccessiblecontextthat

manifestlyyields

adequatecontextuald话cts.Ifthesp。aker淅sks亡0constrainthein伦中rec鲥onthehearer

recovers,hemustcon蛐rainⅡlehearer’schoiceofcontext.As

result,me

use

ofDMsis

n咖rally

expected.Aspea:ker,byusing

DM,mdicateshowmsuneranceistobeimerprcted

aS咒leVaIlt,a11dthehearerisforcedtosupplypanicularcontcxtualassumptionsinordertointerprettheregarded

aS

utteraIlce

in

accordance谢m

on

themeaningof5uch

DM.Therefore,DMs

are

constraimsimposed

unemceproductionandinterpretation.

req_Lliredby

thehcarerto

recover

HoweVer,contextualinterpretation

are

ass啪ptions

canare

theutterancejmmediately

d{珏曲ent涵出g毫糟mcases.Somecontex敏硪la豁umptions

are

accessibletothehearerwho

cases

perceive妣diⅡfcrwithOutmuche丘bn,、vhjleinsomeother

contextualassumptions

comp删VelycoIrlplexaIldrequiretllehearer’smuchmore

inferentialabilityandcontextuali础Iomlation.Ifthespeakerbelievesthatthehearersharesmemucualcogn“iVe

enviro姗ent

wi也him缸讨thehearerisabktoprocess

bemorcfketoproduce

all

cenain

uttera∞e

埘thouttal(ingmuche肋n,he、Ⅳill

(20)a.we

utterance.Forexample:

were1ateinleavinghome.

pulledou垃ofthestation.

b.Whenwe洲ved,the拓ainhadbeen

ThehearermayflnditeasytouIlderstandmesequence

in(20),eventhou出there

is

n0

DM

Jo

to

signal

theutteraJlce

inteIpretation

routc.Thereis

one

approp“ately

bethe

possjble

cause

interpretationofthemeaningrelationsbe啉∞n(20a)and(20”.(20a)may

of

(20b)and(20b)maybet11eresultof(20a).ARerfollowingn”109icaldeduction,the

hearer

maychoosetheaSsumptionmatbecausewewerelateinleaVinghome,wedidnotcatchme廿ain.Phenomenathattherelationshjpisimplicatedandvvinloutthehelpofa11ylingllisticdevicethecontextualassumptionsavailable

are

caIl

beinfb玎edbytIlehearereasily

commoninEn91ishaIldotherlanguages.Since

or

are

limitedinnumber,thespeakermay

maynot

constrainmeu【teranceinterpretationbyDMs,

Incontrast,forsomeune曙nces,mereis

rangeofpossibleconteXtsajldpossible

setofcontextIlalassuInptionsduring

implicatllres.Forthe

derivationishearerto

hearer,selecting

an印propriate

di舔cuh诵thout

theis

ce^ainDMs.CDMsbelongtothis伊oupw11ichf.acilitatethe

lesspmcessingefrort.Lookatthefollowingexanlple:

ishonest.

recover

infomlation埘Ⅱl

(21)(a).Jo}mpoliticiall.(b).He

1hehearer’scontextualassumptionsmayinclude:

c.A11ofpoliticiansd.Johnis

one

are

honest.

ofp01itic洫s,soheishonest.

are

e.Allofpoliticialls£Johnis

one

dishonest.

ofpolilic主ans,buthe主S

a工l铽ception

andhonest.

g.Beingapoliticianis011lyh.Jollllworks

asa

profession.nhasnothingtodowithhonesty.

processes

p01mcian.Moreover,hc

are

personal时ofhones吼

hearerwillbringto

on

Thecontextualassurnptions

are

notlistedexhauStivelyhere,Ifmespeakerandthehearer

notsurewhetllermeysharethemutIlalcognitive

so

enviro岫ent,the

bear

manycontextualassurnptionswithoutthehelpofthespeaker’sconstraim

the

utterallce

intemret撕on鲫d

itwillseemimpossibletoacmeVethcgoalofcommunicationand

doesnotmeetthefeqllirememthathumanslookforrelevantinfom’ationintheircogn越VeenvironmemfortheleastprocessingintendedmeaIlingoft11espeakeLInfastand

s0

e肺rt.And

thehearerisindangertomisullderstalldthe

inteIpretationtakesplace

recoVer

so

comm吼ication,unerance

usually

are

spontalleouslyⅡlat

rarely

conunu11icators

notawareofhowt11ey

or

thc

messages.Ahearer

spendsdays,let“one

months

years,working

out

tk

interDretationsofanutterance.Heconsciouslydesirestominimize

the唧oⅢofprocessing

hearer’schoiceof

accessible.In

e舶rtrequiredfort11erecoveryofrelev趾tiⅢb瑚ation.Consequently,thc

co印mVe

hvDothesisandtllis

case,even

evidence埘ll

berestrictedtothe

o鹏s也at缸emostiIrⅡnediately

ifthespeakeraIldmehearcrsharetllemutual

enVironrnentwhichis

seemto

alsot11ecommonsellseintheirsocietymatpol憾cians甜edishonest,segmeIn(b)will

beillo画calandmake

nosense

because

on

thebasisofthePrincipleofReleVallce,thehearer

willcosttheIeasteffortaIld

just

infrernatufallythatsegment(b)istheconclusionofsegment

(a).Incontrast,ifmespeakerpmvidesthehearer谢th

24

CDMsuchas“but”tointroduce

(2lb),theimmediatelyaccessiblecontextllalass砌ptionsof(21e)and(21f)areaVa订ablewhichwillinstructt11ehearertomeintendcdinterpretation.

Tos啪uAforanyutterance、Ⅳjmtwosegmentsin

notcontr剃verelationship,、vithoutthemakesense.EVenthoughat(heend

areinstructionofCDMs,itseemstobeillogic“anddoesofprocessing,thehearera盯ivesattheconclusionnlatthesegInentsincontrastiVe

relationshipa11dgainstheimendedutteranceimerprcta_tion,Ⅱ1eprocessingefrortrequiredfor!hese锄inglyillogicaldeductionismuchmo碍manthepr。c锚sing

the丘arneworkofRelevaIlcee踟^f.orthe!ogicalwhowantsdeduction.Accordingto

communicationtotheory,thespeakercaIlsucceedmustgu觚mteetllatthehearerrecovertheoptimallyrelevant

communication,whentheinterpretationattheleastprocessingeⅡ.o九,Soinlinguistic

uttefancehastwosegfrlentsincontrastherelationship,mespeakerusuallyemploysCDMssuchas6砒矗owPvec聊wr珐P如踺a砌ozt曲,to

soconstrain血ehearer’sinferentialabili埙backgroundkIlowledgealldfbnhtom.mimizetomegreatestextentthehearel‘’sprocessing

e行.orlinutteranceinte印fetation.

CDMs,asapanicmar铲oupofDMs,seemtobeofgreatsigni丘canceinmeprocessofpmductionandirlte叩rctationofunerances.But、vhatisttlepropertythatmakesCDMscmcialin眦eranceinterpTetation?InmefoIlowingse嘶on,we“llmakeattemmstoexploreCDMs’speciaIcharacte—sticsf砧mmecognitive—pragmaticpefspectiVe.

4.2CDMswithPmcedural

asInformationfirststudiedbyGricein11isailalysisoftheCDMssuch6她一eVe舶gJhs、vere

non-mltllconditionalmealling,in山ef和eofmeat七emptsbytheordinarylanguagephilosopherstoshowt11atthesemarIticsfornaturallallgllagecollldnotbebasedonthesemaIlticsofan洒ciallogicallanguages.Onthebasis0fnlesPeechacttheoreticdislinclionbecweendescribingaIldindicating,Griceputforwardthedistinctionbd、他enCemralGrollnd-n00rspeechactperfonnedby

actaIlorunerance,aIldNon-ce曲融orHi曲er_levclspeechcommunicatedbyDMslike6峨∞、ⅣhichcommeminsomewayontheimerpretaIjonofthecentraIspeechact.rntheexanlple,

(22)1'0mishere,6whehasfo唱ottenllis协11npet.

Thespeakerperflomsaground-noorstatement也atTbmishcrcandmathchasforgottenhiscalculator,a11dat也esametime,t11er01eof6埘istosignalthepcdb衄anceofthisnon-centralspeechactbywhichcontrastiverelationShipbenⅣeentlletwosegmentsisdrawn.Inthisw£Iy,GricedistinguishedWHATISSmDⅥ柚chisrestrictedtothepropositionaltrumconditionalcontentfromWhatisCONVENTIONALLY

theperfoHnanceofaIMPLICATEDwhjchsignalsinfornlationaboutnon-tru出act(Grice,1989).

asIfanexpressionsuch6甜oro胛珐P

2SD腑gr胁州signalsmeperfb咖a11ceofa

non—centralspeechactillocutionaryforceand

act

as

Gricesaid,tllenthatSpeechact,likeallspeechacts,musthavepmpositionalcontent.n

an

se锄s

thatGricewouldsayⅡlatthespeech

such

as(22)haSthe

content

of(23),andhencethatiStheconventionalimplicaturecarried

by6以

(23)Thereis

contr嬲tbetweentllesta_tcmentmatTbmisherea11dthestatememthat

Tomhasfo玛onenhistrLlIllpet.

ButiftllisisIhecaSe,Ⅱlenitisnotclearwhattheforceoftheactis.Itcannotbet11eactofcomrastingsincemef如tt}lattIlercistheact.Perhapsthen

one

conⅡastisrepresentedbythcpropositionalcontentof

one

couldsaymattllis

lli曲er_level

by

actis

simply

aIl

actofcommenting.But

wouldhavetosaythatactssignaIed

6Ⅲareindividuatednot

bytheirilIocutionary

are

pmpertiesbutbytlleirpropositionalcoment.ThatwouldmearIthatmeseexpressions

a11alyzed

as

not

illocutionaDrforce,butare廿eated

as

indicatorsof

some“ng

propositional.Then

not

thequestioniswhatistllerelationshipbetween6村a11dthepropositionin(23).Foritisclearwhemerwhatisencodedby6z盯inthisencoded

act

pr叩osition

isinthe

s啪e

waythatwhatis

by“trumpet”or“forgo他n”inthepropositionalcontemofthcgroulld—noorspeech

see

pcrfo册edby(22).MorcoVer,as

wilSona11dsperber(1993)observe,“isdimcultto

how

Griceananalysiscouldaccount南rthe沁malu∞of6掰in(24)掣oducedby

seesa

smaller

teenageboywho

ia喀etcellagebullytabng

bicyciefromthebikerackatsch001.

(24)B讲that’sMYBIKE!

BoⅡlRjeber’sparendleticaltacitattemptsto

pe如rnlatiVeaIlalysis锄dBach’s

hplicature

IQ(indirectquotation)are

mod毋Grice’s

conVentional

aIlalysis.Butitseemsthatneitherof

themhavesucceededinfindingmeright衄ck

吨urnentationtheory(AT)is

such

as

non—cogIlitive,non—tnl血一conditionalsemantic血eory.h

isbestkno、Ⅵlforitsdetailedanalysisofexpressionswim

r∞n一弧th-conditional

meanin岛

6z矿AccordingtotheoriginalversionofA:『’utteraneesbavenotonly

inf0胁ational

deVelop

contem,butalsoargI】mentatiVeoriemation.ThisledAnscomberand

Ducrot(1989)to

theoryoflinguisticallyencoded

as

non枷m?conditional

mc砌ng.Wi“n“sfr锄ework,6m

istreated

utcerances

an

a咯umematiVeoperatorw量lichconstrainsmea唱umentat沁eoriemationofthe

thatcontain

it(Iten,2000).ItseemsmatAnscomberandDucmt}lavemoveda、Ⅳay

舶m趴analysis

inⅥrhichthcmeaningof6甜is

constitucntof

constraim

propositionwithnor“mthinte叩retation,Thjsmove

conditiontomeanalysisinwhichitisanalyzed

asaon

seemstobeintheright击rectjonalld也eiranalysisof6“aS

conStraint

onuse

is

so

insi曲t如1.

is

imponant

to

recogmze

thatAT

haS

led

tendency

from

the

non—tnJth—conditionalmeanjngtot11epragmaticconstraintanalysis.

Furthernlore,therelevancetheoreticdistinctionbetweenexplicatureandimplicaturemoVesawayf而mmespeechactmeoretictradition.AccordingtoSperbera11dWilso玛explicaturesof

an

utterance

are

nlose

ass啪ptionscoIn删Ilicatedby

me

uttemce

which

are

infbrentialdeVelopmentsof“slogicalderivedby

an

fom.Clearly,the

explicaturesof

anutterance

are

combinationoflinguisticdecodingandinfcrence.HoweVer,meimplicaturesof

uttemnce,unlikeexplicatures,areallmosepropositionscommunicatedbytll砒utterance

are

whichnot

inferentialdeVelopmentsofiIslogical

fo衄.Clearly,di舵rent

are

fromthe

explicaturesofanutterance,theimplicatIlresofaIl嘣erancenisderivedinthat

a11

derived

entirely

inferentially.

inf宅renceinw王lich廿leexplicatureis

one

ofpremises.Thismakesitpossible

lingujsticallyencodedinformationmaycontributetotheifltcrpretationprocessei出erby

infomlingpartofdecodedconceptualrepresemation

or

byproviding

on

infomation

on

the

ma主1ipulationofconceptual19961,

In

the

r印resentation,e.g.by

o仃eringguidallceinference(Blakemore

relevaIlce-meoretic

on

fi锄ework,CDMs

encode

proceduraI

infomation,i.e.

洫fonnation

howtomaIlipulate,howto“take’’aconceptualrepresentationratherthail

bearingconVentionalinlplicature.AswhowOuldhaVe

in(22),6埘constrains恤einterpretationofthehearcr

conti删ed

t11econtextual

ass啪ption

co驴itive

thatTombfingst11etnlmpetwith

h血

sinceheishere.ThedistinctionbetweenprocedumlmeaIlinga11ddesignedtorenectcomputation.Asconceptual

conc印tualmeallingis

more‰daInen协l

meaningfits

distmctionbe_【weenrepresentationandthatthcrccognitionoft、vo

the

typesof

view:

Wilson&sperbcr(1993)note

aIldproceduraI

an

ve叮weII晰th

reIevance-theoretic

corIlrnunicationist11is

process

essentiallyinferemialprocess.Liilguisticdecodingprovidest}lcinputforsllrely

involves

tlle

which

cons仇lctionand

manipulation

ofmental

representations.ThereforeitistobeeXpectedt11atlinguiSticcxprcssionsmayencodet、vo

typesofmfomlation:infomationwllichcoIl仃ibutesdircctly

totlle

cons帆Jctionofconceptual

representations,i.e.conc印ts,a11d

iIlfbmation

distinction

on

howtomallipulatethese

conc印tual

representations,i.e.pmcedurals.ThedistinctionbetweenconceptualmeaningandproceduralmeaIling

does

not

equa王

thebetⅥ,eentruth.conditionaIadverbials

such

as

mealling

and

non-nlnh-conditionalmeaIling.For‘seriously’aretr℃ated

as

ex锄ple,sentence

‘frankly’and

non—tmth—conditionalbutmeyencodeconceptualmeaning,、vhile

CDMs,asnon-tmtll-conditional,encodethepmceduralmeallingbec肌setheymallipulatethe

mentalrepresentationa11dconstrain恤einf色rentialroute.Ithasbeena唱uedbySperberaIld

wilson(1993)aIldCarston(2002)thatthegapbetweenl证guisticallyencodedmeaningand

truth—conditionalcontentmeansmatlinguisticdecodingdoesnotdelivcrrepresentationswim

tmth-condition,butconceptualrepresentationswhich

are

developed

bypragmaticinference

semanticsisnot

intorepresemationswithtnJⅡlconditions.Thjssuggeststhatlinguistic

concemedwithmerclationbet、vcenlinguistic

relationbetweenelementsoflinguistic

fo珊aIld

tlleextemalworldbutwiⅡ1the

f0肿and

thecognitive

info珊ation

theyencode.In

to

thissense,thequestionthatmat【ersisnotwhetIler

linguisticexpressioncontributes

truth

conditionsbutratherwhat姑ndofcogllitiveinfbnnationit

27

encodes—conc印tual

or

procedural.

Thcdistinctionbetweenproceduralmeaningandconceptualmeallingbearing

on

call

haveimportam

thefutlⅡeofDMresearch.

OnmereleVancevieW,utteraIlceinterpretationis1argelyaniⅢbrentialprocesswhichconsistsofforr]ningandevaluatinghypomesesaboutwl】atthespeakerimendslocommuIlicate

CDMsencodingproceduralinf0肌ationrestrictmenurnber

an

ofhypothesesthehearerneedsto

considerinordertoarriveat

opt洫allyrelevantinterpretation,thusfacilitateboththe

speaker’sandthehearer’staskHowever,ourresearchgoalisnotjusttodiscoverthatCDMseIlcodetlleproceduralmeanillgaIldconstraintheimplicaturesof

wemustfindoutwhatkindofprocedural

an

unerance.Fun上lemlore,

infbⅢlationCDMs

encodeandwha【rolemis

be

proceduralinfornlationplayinthe

comm哪ication.In

theneXtsection,CDMswill

on

our

analyzedintemlsofcontextuale强∞ts,whichmayshedlightmeaningofCDMs,

researchofpmcedural

4.3

CDMs

IntroducingContradictionandElimination

leamedfromt11eanalysesabovethatRelevancetheoryclaims

Aswehave

h啪肌

speaker

co髓itionisgearedtothema)【imizationofrelcvallce.Ahearerwhorecognizesthat

hasmadeherintentiontoconveyinformationmanifeStisentitledtoassumethatthcspeal(erismaI【ing

a11

optimallyrelevant

no

unemce

andthehearerhimself

canrecovcr

theimended

me猫ng

ofthespeakerfor

unjustmablee胁rt.Thisjust

pmVestllefac“hattheexistence

ofCDMsiscognjtivelymotivated.Anutteranceachievesrelevanceifa11donlyifitobtainscenaincognitive

e‰ct

on

thebasisofthehearef7scon托。(tual

efrects

can

ass啪ptiorIs.According

to

Sperber锄dWilson.contextual

beclassifiedinteⅡnsofthekindofinferential

is

processesinv01ved、Ⅳhennewlypresented

infb蛐ation

bmughttogether、viththeexisting

info肌ation,by

strengmening

an

existingassllⅡlption,by

an

con仰dictingaJldeliminating

aIl

existingassumption,orby

combining丽th

one

existingassumptiontoyield

whosemeallings

in

are

comextual

implication.Itdoesseem血atcognitive

cafl

identi旬DMs

1ir出edtothese

f01low啦ex锄ples:

(25)(a).Bencan。penT。m’ss哦.(b)孝P,蛾heknows妇combination,

e恐cts.Considcrthc缸lctionsof妒Prd,fand占D

(26)(a).Benc姐opcnT0m’s

s小.(b)&he

knowsthecombmation.

Aswe

an

caIl

see,me

uSe

of

DM斫Pr口口in(25)indic砒es

that也ehearerisexpected

tofolloW

infcrcntialmuteinwhichthepropositionexpressedbysegmem(b)is

spca:kcr

premisefortheindicatingthat

deductionoftheproposmonexprcssedbysegmem(a).Thc

an

of(25)is

segment(b)is

aim

relevalltbyvircueofstren甜hening

to

existing

ass啪ption.Inother、vords,the

to

of矽口,口,¨smcreaset11es仃engthofmehearer’scommitIllent

comrast,the

uSe

theassufnption

theheareris

conveyedinthe

se舯ent(a).In

an

ofDM

so

in(26)indicatesthat

expectedtof01low

inferentialmuteinw11ichthepropositionexpressedbysegment(b)is

2R

meconclusionderived疗DmtheprDpositionexpressedbyindicatingmat

segrnent(a).The

speaker

of(26)is

segment(b)is

just

relevantbyVirtueofbeing

not

comextualimplication.

are

TheanalysissketchedsuggeSts0111ythatthemea血ngsofDMs

1jnkedto

cognitiveefrects,butmoreparticularlymattheydirectlyencode也etypesofcognitiVeefkctintended.111thisway’itispossibleforllstodiscoVermetypeofcognmVeefrectmeCDM6讲encodes。

(27)Tomiskre,6撕hehasf-orgottenhistmmpet.

an

InthisexaIIlple,thespeakerassumesthattllehearerhasderived

assllInpfion

asa

contextual

an

implicationf如mthefirstsegment.Inomerwords,thehearerhasbeenexpectedtoderive

assumption(28)f而mt11eprecedingsegment廿1atTbmishere.

(28)Hebringst11etrumpet丽tIl11im.

However,t11isderivedassurnptionisinconsistenc拶vvimmesegment6埘introducesnlathehaS

f0玛ot【enhistru瑚pet.Byusing6砧thespeakerintcnds

speaker

todenytheassumption(28)which

the

thou曲t

tllehearerwollldhavejnteIpretedfbmtheprecedingsegmem.Andthe

hearerwillhavetoabandon也e

exiStiI培ass啪ptionsothat

can

mecontradictionbetweentllenew

infbmation

andtheoId

an

iⅡf0姗ation

beso王ved.Ihmiscase.6“f向nctionstocontradict

andelimillate

assumptionpresuInedtohavebeen

d茚ved

or

wesaymademanifesttobom

us

mespeakerandthehearerbymeprccedingsegment.Letcontaining

consideranotherexamplefltoⅡlerCDMs.

CDM鲫舭DmPr胁蒯to

coIlld

see

Whemertheanalysis

can

(29)IgotothemoViestonigllt.0n

meotllcrhand,IcouldstayathomeaIldwatch

TV.

In

t11isexample,aRer

he撕ng

t11e

firstut【erance,me

hearer

mi曲t

have

reachedthe

to

assumptionmattllereisonly

moviesandtherecontextuaI

areno

one

choicefortheSpeaker,thatis,hecouldonlygo

use

the

otberahernatives.Yet.theofD疗珐P

D所Pr妇胛d

consn丑insme

assumptionsandindicatesthat血esegmentitin廿c|ducesthatthespeakeralsocouId

stayathomea11dwatchTViscontextIlalme

inconsistcnt埘m也e

assumptionthehearerhasderivcd

asa

implication舶mthefirstuneraulce.Thccxpressiono胛砌P

o捕Pr向册d

contradicts

ass啪ptionderived丘omthe血巩andthuslcadingto

T0

s咖耐ze,both扫w

ttle血fIo珊ation

arc

itselimination.

beanalyzed

as

in(27)and

D竹腩B

D砌口r|b册din(29)can

an

encoding

thatthehearerisiIltendedtofollow

infe吲ntia|routewhichends

isjusttheprocedural

int王lecontradictionaIldelinlina蛀onofinfornlationwe

searchjngforCDMs.

e仃ectsallow

contextual

ass啪ption.This

Ⅵ惴Ie

the

co印itiVe

usto

distinguishthreebroadcatcgories

aboVea11,faci王itate

us

ofDMs

correspondingtothetypesofcogllitive

e腩cts粗d

us

tofixtheprocedural

inf0HnationofCDMs,theydonotallowtodrawaIlyexplallationforthe

acc印tability

of

repIacementof6甜foralrnostaIlCDMs,norprovidethesubtledistinctionsbetweenthemcaIlingsofthe

di船rem

expressions血atfauinto

29

me缸nilyofcDMs.Inthefollowing

section,based

on

theanalysiswehavemadeabove,I丽llmakeattemptstoanalyzethe

tonndoutwhatmakes6埘diabrem

typicalCDM6“fintermsofpmcedu豫lmeaning,andtry

fromotllerCDMsanddmwsomesubtledistinctionscarulotbeexplainedbytraditionaIapproaches.

b帅een

6埘andotherCDMs,which

4.4ProceduraIAnalysisof6Ⅳf

Sof缸6甜hasbeenconside咒d

as

themostubiquitouSandgeneraiofCDMsandisaIso

t11emostcomplicated.Traditiorlally,theexpressionof6甜Q

caIl

begiVen

rangeof

interpretations.MoStofthe1“erature

on

6甜recogIlizessomeunitary

uses

likecontrast,deIlialofofthemeaningof6Ⅳ,,

uses

expectation,comction

mleinactivating

and

and

o毯ection.Aprocedu同account

whichiswhatIamaimingat,needst0showhowtoaccommodateallⅡ1ese

aIl

of6埘inits

inferemialroutewIlichislinkedt0mecognitiVee丘bctofcontmdiction

flne一掣aineddistinctionsinmeaningbctween6们and

elimination.Funlle珊ore,sOme

CDMs

are

other

expectedtobe

c印tu阳d.

4.4.1DenialofExpectation

Firstly,let’scomebacktotllenotoriousexaIllplewhichiswidelyrecognizedaS也e‘denialofexpectation’use.

(30)John

is

p01itician,6“fheishonest.

Indenialuse,theideais

mat廿le觚se笋nent(Johnis

withmeproceduraj

politician)implies

someconclusionis

(Jolm

isdishonest)whichis血endeIliedbymesegmentintroducedby6斫(hehonest).This

introducing

explanacionpafcIycorresponds

i廊rmation

ofCDMs

contradictionandelimination.Illthiscase,to8ay6“meaIIsdemalistosaythatitencodesconstraint

that

triggers

an

infbrentialrouteirⅣolvingcon托ldictingaIldeliminatmg觚

andeliminated

assumptionwhichisexpectedbymeheareLH盯eme

ass啪ptioncontra出cted

as

by

6耐is

pres啪ed

tobemaIlifesttothehearet

Whcnhe撕ngt11e、Ⅳord‘politician’,mehearer

tobearsuch

mighthavebmughtmanycontextIlalassmrlptions

p01iticiansbeingeloquent

reason

aIldinstigating,giRedingiVingpublicspeech,etc,but恤espeakerhas

tobelieVemat

出echarac据risticsofbeingdishoneStscemstobemu£凇1lymartifes“oboththespeakerandⅡlehearefintheircultur。e.Inthiscase,theassumptionbeingcontradictedandeliminatedisderived矗omtheprcceding

se舯ent.However,notallmeassum砸ons

newinfomlationarederived抒omtheimmediateprecedingunemce.

Thef0110wing

inconsistem晰tll

the

ex锄ple

is

conversationbet、veentv∞friendsWho

are

talkingdboutme

weather:

(31)A:What、villthe

B:well,ithaS

sumly.

weatherbel龇廿lisMayh01iday?

be£n黼ily

w洫dy出eSedays,6讲f两mMayD镀y

it谢ji

beq滋te

30

HereB’s

use

o±6们canbet出∞n

as

evidenceofhisassumptlon也atAbelleVesmatthet}lesedays.Thlsthehearerisexpectedtogetthe

weamerhasbeeninferencein(32).

uniform也rou曲out

(32)a.Tllepost—May

itisreally

Dayweatller、villbe也esame

as

thepre?MayDayweameronlyif

windy

b.ThepoSt—MayDayweatherwillnotbeeXtremelywindy.c.Thereforo,theweatlleL

TMssuggests血atmeweatherwouldbethe

not

use

post.MayDaywea畦ler州】lnot

bethe

s锄eastllepre—MayDay

of6甜plays

roleint11eeIiminationof山eassumptiont11atthe

s锄ebeforeandafter

preceding

MayDay,HoweVer,tlliselimmatedaSs啪ptionis

of

deriVed

direc廿y舶m也e

se鲫em

6“^R弛er

itis

on

t11ebasisofme

questionAhasasked,naInely,thatme、Ⅳeatherthatthereis

is吼讧b衄throughoutthesedaysa11dhence

sin91ea11sw盯to11isqueStion.TheeXpectationofgetting

one粗swerisderived

矗omtheco-textinSteadofbe洒gderivedf幻mthe如哪edia士e

preceding

se黜ntof6甜f.

di髓rent

f幻mme

Anomercase(33)1istedbelowisstiUabout血eweathcr,bmis

ex锄ple

dbove.The

use

of6讲inthef0110wii鸩wea血crr印ortcomeXt、Ⅳi11beacceptableto

hearerWhokno、Ⅳs也at

B哂啦isnotoriousforitsw.md.

today'6埘Be巧i119hadli曲t丽nds.

all

(33)changchun

Inthjscase,the

was廿lc、Ⅳindiestcityinchina

aSsur印donbeingcontradictedisnot

asSumptiontllatChallgchllIland

Beijing

are

alike’butrather姐蠲sumptionthatBe蜀ing

is曲ariablythe试ndiestc时in

the

on

coullny.111emebasis4。4.2

eliminated够s1埘州on

is

one吐锄me

Speal(erpresumesisheldbyt11ehearer

ofaSslllllptionsheholdsabouttllehearer’sencyclopedicknowledge,

objection

AsshownaboVe,inmany

caSes

t王le

ass啪ption

whichthespeakerintends也ehe越crto

eIiminateisnotderiVed丘DmtheirlteIpretationOfmefirstbutissimply

aJl

segm%t

of恤e6甜utteranceatall,

assurnptionWhichmespeakerhas糟asont0believeismallifestoftheheareL

Theinitialuseof

6埘in(34)(r印eatcdherc)isthccase

collsidered

tal【mg

as

theobjection

use

of6甜f.

[AsmallerteenageboyAsees

largcteenage

bullyB

abicycle

f如mthebikerack

atschoola11d

shou_七s】

(34)B甜tllat’sMYBIKE!

The

case

showsthat也e印eakerAh髂theevidencefbrtheassunlptionheidbymeIargebully

Bthathehasme

rigllttot。出e

llse

A'sbicycie

awayandAis唧ectedtokc印siIent.nispossibIe

ass啪ption

being

fortheSpeal(erAtoelim主natiOninme

6埘as

meallsofactivatingt}lepmcedureofcontradictiOnand

unemce

whjchisnDtprecededbyaIlydiscourse.111e

use

contradictedandeliminatedbytlle

asa

of6甜hereisderivedf如mthephysicalcontextwhich,

constituentofcognjtiVecontext,we}lavementionedi11t11elastchapter.Here廿1e

cannotbe

physical

or

comextcollSidercd

as

me

dbjective“out也ere”but

31

havingbeencognized

irltemaIizedbythespeakerormehearera11dbecomessomeassumptionSofhiscogilitiveenvironmem.Whentheli砌eboyseessomeoneelsetakinghisbicycleaway,hehast11isinformationtransf0Hnedintopsycholo西calrepresentatio王1SaIldenteredtheshon—teIIIlmemorya11dconstructedt11econtextualass啪ptions也atthe1a喀ebullyBminkshehasmerighttotakethebicycleaway、vithout也epennissionofaIlyone.TheaSs唧ionismaIlifbsttobotll也eheareraIldme印eaker,w}1ichthespeal【erpresumes.The0_bjectionuseof6斫hereisjusttocontradictaIIdelirnina砖theaSsumptionderivedf如m也ephysicalcontextwhichismuCuallymaIlifeSt.Inconm埘,rleitller^DwPv已,nor玎Pvg,加8拓础isacceptableint11iscase:

(35)7王,0wPVP彬^kvPme如ssthat’sMYBIKE!

Theinitialuseof6wisableto1ink血e1堍1listiccontext、ⅣimmephysicaIcontcxtandsimultaneouslycontradicttheassuI】印tionderived丘DmtllephysicalconteXtso也at也ecommunicationcouldbepossible,whereaseimer^DweVPror即PVgr肪e搪时c锄ot.Altllou曲meycanactivatet圭lei耐bIentialrOutewIlichcanconstrainthe诚eranceinterpretationandresultsinthecon柏dictionandeli血nationofallassumption,tlleycannotactiVatethepamcmarcOgIlitivecontext:也ephysicalconteXtas6讲does.

4.4.3Correction

In(36),thesegmentintroducedby6“f‰ctionsasaso—caHedcorrectionofthenegatedassumption.

(36)She’snotmysisterb毗瑚【ymother.

Frommea11a1”esaboveⅥ忙lcnowthatthe鲫s啪ptionel础natedby6撕segmemin(36)onitscorreclioninterpretationmustbeone也atismadom越fest.Butwhatis也oaSsl瑚ptioncontradicted?Ifwec蛆findthisassumption,wec01lldmainta证meu11itaryaccountthat6“activates也emferentialDrocedwewhichre乳dtsin也econ把挝ictionaIldeliminationofamanjfestassumptiOn.Thefirstsegmentof6“fseemstoimplyaquestion,suchas曲¨,胁妇J舵7Thesegmentin们ducedby6wseemstoprovideaIlexplaIlation.Thisisnotthea11swerwewant.MaybewecallgetsomeeIllightementf椭thef01lowingex锄ple(37):

(37)1womdhavelikedtogoonaholidaythiswinter’6掰IcouldIllta娲rdit.(38)1wentonah01iday-

Theuseof6埘in(371谢11beunderstoodtojndicate血att11ehearershouldabandonfhcass砌ptionm(38).However’misass唧tionismanjfbstlyfalse.IntKscase,itseemsmatwb三lethespeakerpresumes也eeliIn恼atedas蚴ptiontobema血festlyf豇se,fofconsiderationinmecontext,t11isoneismostlikelytohaVeoccurTedtoⅡleheareras(38).Somespeakerwillassumethatt11eco玎ectionfb肋ofthenegatedsegmem,bothsem姐tica11dsyntactic,willbeaccessibletotllehcareLThatistosay’也enegativesentencemakesaccessible“spoSitivecoⅦnerpartwMchis也eassumptioncontradieteda11delimirlated.Asimilara11alysiscouldbegivenfor(36).BycontradictingandeIimmatingtheposi石VeassumptionwhichchaIlges丘omtheoriginalnegatjVe,me6”f_cl卸sestr_engtllenstlle32

conclusion(she’s

pmvides

aIl

notmy

sistcr)drawn

on

t11ebasisoftllefirstsegmentandsimultaneously

explanation.Inmiscase,theassllmptionishypomesizedtobederiVed丘omthe

linguisticstmcmrewhichispanofknowledgesm】d11remcog工1itiVecomext.

case

Neimer

^owPvP,nor玎ev已,胁P,已船canbeusedintheofcorrection.

mother.

andcorrection,theheareris

an

(39)?She’snot

Tb

suIIl

my

sister,^owev明锄everfkfessmy

up,inall

an

ex锄ples

invol“ng

dellial,objection

expectedtomake

inferen∞wMchreSuhsinthecontra【dictionandeIiminationof

ass眦ption.That

that

is,西甜encodestbe

s姗e

procedllreineachcase,andmeonly

di艉rcnce

is

in(30),meassumptionthatiscont聊iictedandeliminatedby6撕isderived丘Dmt11e

eliminated

precedillg

segment,in(31),廿1e

aSs啪ptionis

derivedfImmthe

co—text,in(33)t11e

eliminatedassumptionis

pres啪ed

tobepaItofthchearer’sencyclopedicl(110wledgeandin

(34)theobjection6甜isconsideredtocon讯ldicta11deliminatethemanif宅stassumptionwllich

isderivedf如mtllephysicalcontext,wIlileplays

in(36),thelinguisticstructureincognitiVecontext

r01eineliIIlinat.mgmeassumptionwhichismought幻bethepos主tiVe

fomofthefifst

segInent.The

routewhich

a11alysisaboveseemstosuggestt11at6甜doesnotonlyactivatetheinferemial

results协也econtradictionandeliminationofanassⅢnption,butalsores缸ctsthe

on

cogllitiVecontextwhichismanifbstbothtothespeakera11dmeheareLThercstrictioncognjtivccontextismadepossibIebyparticularCDMsarIdillthestudy,6埘cancommdictandeliminatethecontcxt,co-text,linguisticstructure

or

tlle

di豌rs

indegree.Asisdiscussed

ass啪ption

wmchisderived行omphysical

are

enc”10pedics仇lcturewtlich

t11esubclassesof

cognitivecontext.Soitispossibleto

contextisless

ass啦e

mattlleres埘ctionof6埘onthecognitive

on

t11aIl盟yCDMs.ne

100serestriction

thecogIlitivecontextmayprovide

can

an

explanationforthefhctthat6Ⅲis也emostgeneralCDMsand

uneraIlcesinwhichother

alwaysbeusedin

on

CDMs

are

acc印table.It

isthe

di腩rentrcstrictions

thepanicular

cognitivecontextsthatmembersi玎t}1eCDMs.

distinguish胁Ⅵ世垤,,珂ew,f船拓船aIld

6址even锄ong血ef-锄iiy

ChapterFiVe

Conclusion

5.1Researchconclusion

Researches

on

DMs,thou曲rich

on

and舶it砌,are胁舶m

di氐rem

opitlionsa11d

beinghomogeneousand

complete.Thcstudieswhichpmvesthat

DMshavebeendoneunder

more也an“ventyoVerlappinglabels,

di腩rem

researchershold

o虢r

di仃cremexplallations

ofthenatureofDMs.WekweidentifiedthreeperspectivesinmisstudyAdvocatesofthediscourse—coherence_basedperspectiveholdthatwhatDMscontributemosttodiscourseisestabIishingemphasizes

v撕ous

cohcrence

or

relationswhiIethe

gr煳atical—pragrnatic

perspective

the掣a咖atical

to

syntacticstatllsandpmpertiesofDMs.Noneofmempr0Vides

psychologicalexplanationforDMsiIlutt瞄aIlceproductiona11dintcrpretation.Compared

withthe

t、釉印projlchesDMs,tllereIevance.basedcogmtive—pragmaticapproachproVides

use

themoreconvincinga11dpromising丘ameworkforexplainingt11e

Ontheo让lef

0fDMs.

hand,谢lile

DMs

are

Iegarded矗Slinguisticde“ceswhichhelpthemehearerfromunnecessaryprocessingguiding

the

hearer’s

interpretation

spe幽暑r

all

achievetheoptimal

relevance鲫d

save

e娲rt,not

process

DMsmake

equal

contributions

are

in

communication.SomeDMssomeDMs,such

as

unmaI_kedand

su_bconsciousb

producedby也espeakerwhile

greatcontribmions

tot11e

CDMs,aree丘bctivemeansofmaHng

productionandinterpretationofu钍erances.CDMs,as

are

particularandmarkedtypeofDMs,

are

becomin2thefocusofDMresea∽h.However,mostofmepreviousCDMrese盯ches

or

madeatthesymacticaIldsemantic

semaIltic1evelwmch

enlphasize

theirsyntacticpositions,collocatbn

occllr

acceptability

inunemnces.曰讲isfollndtobeableto

aS

inalmosta11也e

con舡astivecor浦exts,b毗n0explarIationisg沁enexceptregardingitBased

on

themostgeneralCDM.

theanalvsesabove,wechoose

CDMs舶m

DMs

aS

thefocusofmisresearchaIld

accountforthem丘Dmtllecognitive.pragmaticperspective.

WithⅡ1e

supportoft11e

topmVidethe

Pr访cipleofRelevallce,wchaveattempted

thePrincipleofReleVance,

cognitivemotivationfbrusingCDMs.Giventheassumptionof

meSpeakeraimsatoptimalrelevanceandthehearerisemitledtointorpreteVeryuneranceat

meleast

processing

ef茄rt.Whentlleutterancehas

t、啪segmentsiIlconmlstiVerelationship.in

ordertoavoid

misu矗derstanding缸dsave也ehearer矗ommaktmgextrapro∞ss函gef如rt,me

speakerusuallyemploysCDMstocons仃ainmehearer’sselectionofcontextualassumptions

toguaraIIteethehearertoderive

the“pectedconclusionsandpremises.

conceptual

In

relevanceview,CDMs

donotencode

inf0蛐ation

butpmcedural

restrictSt11enumberof

meaningwhichmanipulatestheseconceptualreprcsentationsand

hypothesesthatmehearer

needstoconsider

34

inordertoa玎iveat

an

optimallyreleVant

interpretationattheleast

efror七.Withthe

asan

helpofcogIlitiVe

or

comextLlalefrccts,werecogllize

meproceduralmeaningofCDMseliminationof

infcrentialroutewhichendsinthccontradictiona11d

Then

wehave

madellllitary

contextual

assmption.

tentative

attemptto

account

accommodatethetypicalinterpretationsof6甜intlle

introducing

procedural

cases

of

conⅡadiction锄delimillation.ThereSultssuggestthatinaUthe

considered

6搿encodesthesameprocedureofactiv商ngthehearer’sinferentialroutewhichr}csu址sin也econtradictionandelimina廿onof

an

contextualassumDtion.FurtheHnofe,wehavefoundthat

on

6“fhasthemostgeneralrestrictionsassumptions

caIl

theselectionOfcognitivecomext.Thecontextual

subclasses

ofcognmVecomext,including

be

derived行omalmostaU

physical

context,co—text,linguisticstructIlre如dencycIopedicstructure.This

caIl

just

proVides

cognitiveexplaflationforwhy6WotherCDMsacceptably.Anddiscovercdmat

occur

inalmostallthecontrastiVeconteXtandrepIace

ex锄iIlingobjectionaIldcorrectionuseof6地wehaVealso

neither矗owew,nor孵Pw砌e毙sscanactiVatemei山’efentialprocedurewhich

by

assumptions如rivedf幻mphysical

conteXt

on

co胁砸icts

andeliminatesthe

andlinguistiethcpanicular

structure.Inthiswayitis如rtherprovedmatitisme

di位rent

restrictions

cognitivecontextthatdistingIlish矗Dwev已EH口w,砌P把盯from6“f.

InconclusiDn,CDMsnotonlyactivatetheinferentialprocedurewhichresultsinthecontradictiona11deIiminationofacomextuaIassumption,butalSorestrictsmeselectionofthecognitivccontext.Atmeselectionof

saIIle

time,theselectionofcognitivecontextalsodemaIldst11e

di舵rentCDMs.The觚o

resmctionsofselectioninteractingwimeachother

CDMs

conveymoreinformation.Thediscove珂oftherestrictionsonc0911itivecomextand

mayshed1ightfactor

as

onas

tlleresearch

on

omer

DMs.毗ingintoconsiderationthedynamiccontext

ollr

well

t11einfbrentialproceduralmeallingmayfacilitate

distinguishingthe

makeL2thattheir

subtledifrerencesbetweenDMsleanlersawareofcommunication

can

w油similar

meaning,andmoreimpoftam哆may

so

di疏rent

usagesofCDMsin

di舵rent

cognmvccontcxts

bemorepragmaticallyappropriateandaccurate.

5.2LimitatioⅡs

Inspiteofgreateffortmadetomakethepresemstudytenable,therestillremainsome

deficiencies.Inthepresentstudy,only

one

CDM6珊isanalyzedsystematicallywhileother

CDMssuch

as幻wFv蹦胎附锄P拓盯arc

only

mentioned崩e玎y.The

distinctions

are

only

madebet、veen矗owgv何以Pv已,蜥P跆ssand6wwithouttryingtomAke

di矗’erencebetweensometypical

uses

向owPvP,and”Pw,砌P尼船.0ntheo山erhaIld,ollrresearchonlyfocuses

of6埘.Manyomerim盯prctationsdiScussedintraditionalliteratweoftheIimitofspace.TheconclusionwebaⅣedrawnrlcedsTb

are

on

notanaiyzedbecause

morejustincation

and

ex枷ination.

can

sumup,thereisstinmuchmorework也atneedstobedonebeforcwe

3S

have

saIisfactoryandcomprehensiVecognitive-pragmaticaccoumofCDMsas、ⅣellaSDMs.5.3RemainingQuestionsforFutulleResearch

asTheoretically,omertypesofDMs谢msimilarmeaIlings

teⅡIlsofres仃ictiononcognitivecontextasCDMscaJlbeaIlalyzedinresultsof

amongwellasprocedllrali芏1fomation.Thetheserese缸ches

tIlem.areexpectedtoreveal也enat、ⅡeofDMsandthcsubtkdistin幽ons

InChinese,、vealsohaveCDMssuchas“但是,不过,然而,可是”.nleproblemofwhethertheCDMsinEnglishandChineseIallguagecorreSpondwitheachotherwouldbewonhwhileacontrastivestudy.

carIPractically,t11eresearchbemadcon

ontheL2leamerS’masteryofDMs,especiallyontheir孙忸renessof也eresmctionofCDMs

andwritingto

inpragmaticcognitivecontextinmeteachingoftranslationemployCDMsappropriatelyaJldaccuratelyex啪inewhemerL21e啪erscansense.

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