最新英语专业全英原创毕业论文,都是近期写作
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4 英汉被动句语义特征对比分析
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22 中西方空间观对比研究
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24 The Similarities and Differences between Chinese and Occidental Classical Gardens 25 英汉委婉语的对比及翻译
26 论“韩流”在中国
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28 对比分析中美可乐广告中的文化差异
29 逆成构词的分类及其认知机制和规律
30 《野性的呼唤》中的人性和野性
31 On Emily Bronte's Self-realization Through the Characters in Wuthering Heights
32 文化商务交际中的个人主义与集体主义
33 广告翻译中的语用失误研究
34 宗教禁欲下的爱情-论霍桑的宗教观与道德观在《红字》中的体现
35 浅谈中西体态语的差异
36 《傲慢与偏见》中的婚姻观
37 从会话含义角度解读《老友记》的言语幽默效果
38 初中英语教学中的跨文化教育
39 中美广告语言文化异同研究
40 文化语境对中西商务谈判的影响
41 广告翻译中的功能对等
42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84
85 中学英语教学大纲与课程标准的比较研究 小学英语教学中的体态语应用 《红字》中女权主义意识探析 旅游宣传品的翻译 从《汤姆索亚历险记》中分析马克吐温的幽默讽刺手法 功能对等理论透视下的影视片名翻译 从文本类型角度看企业外宣材料的翻译 从功能对等理论看商务合同的翻译 论商标名称的翻译对品牌形象的影响 小说《鸡蛋的胜利》中扭曲的“美国梦” 抽象名词词义内涵及其翻译策略 《辛德勒名单》主人公性格分析 用言语行为理论分析奥巴马推定总统候选人演讲 浅论广告语汉译的美学效果 “一只陷入囹圄的小鸟”——苔丝的悲剧命运分析 英语中称谓语的性别歧视现象 由中国的圣诞节“热”来看中美文化的冲突及融合 英语混成新词建构新解:多元理论视域 从女性主义角度分析美国女性--《律政俏佳人》 Symbolism in The Catcher in the Rye 浅析《了不起的盖茨比》的主要人物性格 “白+动词”的语义及其英译 论劳伦斯《儿子与情人》中的“爱” 浅析《德伯维尔家的苔丝》中造成苔丝悲剧的因素 On Self-destruction of Laura in Flowering Judas 英汉歌词衔接手段的对比及翻译 欧?亨利《最后一片叶子》解读 中西文化心理差异分析—以饮食习俗为视角 《灿烂千阳》中女性人物的忍耐,斗争和重生 The Transcultural Differences in the Translation of Commercial Advertisements 中外青年婚姻观念差异——从《柳堡的故事》和《傲慢与偏见》中进行对比 浅析拉尔夫·埃里森《看不见的人》的象征艺术 《哈利?波特》的成功销售及其对中国儿童文学营销的启示 浅析英语谚语中的性别歧视现象及其成因 An Analysis of the Family Membership In Death of a Salesman 浅析网络语言翻译中的功能对等 从《喜福会》中西文化的冲突与融合中看身份的寻求 三星公司营销策略研究 跨文化交际在宝洁公司营销战略中的应用 欧?亨利短篇小说艺术手法浅析 跨文化交际中文化负迁移的原因及其对策研究 浅析合作原则在汉英广告语翻译中的运用 从心理学的角度论《儿子与情人》中保罗的恋爱模式 网络语言风格的性别差异
86 中西方时间观差异分析
87 《远离尘嚣》人物分析及悲剧写法
88 从迪斯尼动画《木兰》看中美文化差异
89 英语公益广告中隐喻的应用及翻译研究
90 Research on the Expression of the Speaker’s Intention in English and Chinese Conversation 91 中美广告创意的文化差异性研究
92 An Analysis of Conversational Implicature In Pride and Prejudice
93 论模糊限制语在广告中的语用功能
94 On the Ways to Develop Junior Middle School Students’Autonomous Ability
95 中西饮食文化的比较
96 An Analysis of Communicative Language Teaching Method in Teaching Spoken English in China
97 论《白象似的群山》中海明威独特的写作风格
98 英汉动物词汇隐喻意义的对比研究
99 On English Translation of Chinese Menu and the Connotation of Chinese Culinary Culture 100 学生英译汉翻译中的英式汉语及其改进方式
101 《老人与海》中圣地亚哥的人物性格分析
102 用陌生化理论阐述《红色手推车》的悲剧色彩
103 卡森?麦卡勒斯《心是孤独的猎手》福柯式解读
104 On Eliza’s Independent Awareness in Pygmalion
105 论《弗洛斯河上的磨坊》中三对人物关系及其象征意义
106 彼得潘--孩子和成人共同的童话
107 论修辞在广告语中的运用和翻译
108 在概念整合理论下探讨英语复合词教学
109 理想与现实的距离——《麦田里的守望者》中主人公霍尔顿的求索之路
110 论报刊语言翻译中的译者主体性
111 从英语演讲的修辞运用看语言性别差异
112 《收藏家》中空间与人物心理关系的解读
113 浅析《老人与海》中人对自然的态度
114 中美饮食文化实体行为与非实体行为的民族差异
115 商务英语写作得体原则
116 从《永别了,武器》与《老人与海》浅析海明威的战争观
117 现代英语新词分析
118 中西文化差异对品牌翻译的影响
119 An Analysis of the Development and Future of Gothic Novel
120 欧洲余烬里飞起的凤凰--Geoffrey Hill诗歌主题与艺术风格
121 An Analysis of Feminism in The Scarlet Letter
122 英汉新闻标题中缩略词对比研究
123 论田纳西威廉斯《欲望号街车》中的逃遁主义
124 An Analysis of Jane Eyre’s Contradictory Character
125 Secondary School English Teachers’ Self-Development from the Perspective of New Curriculum Reform
126 中英文化背景下的金融英语翻译分析
127 英文商标的汉译
128 The Application of Cooperative Learning in English Teaching
129 从自然主义视角审视《嘉莉妹妹》中小人物嘉莉的命运抗争与幻灭
130 西方节日对中国传统文化的影响
131 论《献给艾米莉的玫瑰》中的悲剧之源
132 试论《了不起的盖茨比》中的象征手法
133 《榆树下的欲望》之农场意象--基于生态女性主义的分析
134 中西方茶文化映衬的文化差异
135 暗夜中的精灵——论《寻欢作乐》中的罗西
136 凯瑟琳?曼斯菲尔德《苍蝇》反映的人性创伤分析
137 中英动物习语的文化内涵及其差异
138 《圣经》对英语习语的影响
139 英语委婉语在英语教学中的应用
140 从《唐顿庄园》看一战对英国庄园经济文化的影响
141 广告英语的翻译
142 《嘉莉妹妹》中嘉莉的女性主义形象分析
143 浅析英语委婉语功能
144 A Comparison of the English Color Terms
145 中英诗歌及时行乐主题比较
146 《追风筝的人》中阿米尔的性格分析
147 英语政治委婉语的语用功能
148 A Brief Comparison Between the Two Translation Versions of D.H. Lawrence’s The Woman Who Rode Away
149 从《肖申克的救赎》和《当幸福来敲门》看美国个人主义价值观
150 英汉委婉语跨文化对比研究
151 从女性主义角度解读惠特曼的《草叶集》
152 An Analysis of the Fatalism and Pessimistic View in Tess of the D’Urbervilles
153 任务型教学模式在初中英语课堂教学中的现状分析--以xx学校初一学生为例 154 从花语的不同含义浅析中西方文化差异
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157 对文化差异引起的误译的研究
158 毛姆《月亮与六便士》中斯特里克兰德的梦想
159 Emerson’s Ideas on Nature and Social Harmony
160 简爱与电影《音乐之声》中玛丽亚冯特拉普性格分析比较
161 对《瑞普凡温克尔》两个汉译本的语言美的比较评论
162 论网络英语的特征
163 论弗吉尼亚伍尔夫《海浪》的人物刻画
164 中英文幽默映射的语言与文化差异
165 《汤姆叔叔的小屋》中的圣经原型人物解析
166 浅议英语诗歌中的书写变异
167 《围城》英译本中文化负载词的翻译研究
168 论《小镇畸人》中人物的怪诞性
169 辩证论视域下神似与形似的相互关系研究
170 功能目的论视角下的仿拟翻译的应用分析
171 A Research on Frances Burnett’s “Fauntleroy” Writing Style
172 探讨法国葡萄酒营销与中国白酒营销中的民族特色
173 诸神形象折射中西方价值观不同
174 宗教文化与翻译
175 浅谈中西文化中的思维差异
176 交际法在中学英语词汇教学的应用
177 中美文化交际中的礼仪文化差异研究
178 《远大前程》中社会环境对皮普的意识与行为的影响
179 肢体语言在商务谈判中的应用与作用
180 课外作业对高中英语学习的作用研究
181 索尔贝娄的《银碟》中父子关系的分析
182 从女性主义批评看《金色笔记》中的人物描写
183 The Determining Influence of Environment on the Development of Heathcliff’s Character 184 A Comparison of the English Color Terms
185 英文电影字幕中的文化意象翻译研究
186 Developing University Students’ Cross-cultural Awareness in English Teaching and Learning 187 浅谈中西体态语的差异
188 《傲慢与偏见》中简·奥斯汀的婚姻观及其现实意义
189 苔丝和傲慢与偏见中的女性意识之对比研究
190 英语环境的营造对中学生英语学习的影响
191 《远大前程》中皮普成长的心路历程
192 埃德加?爱伦?坡作品中的哥特风格分析
193 乡村音乐歌词的人际意义分析
194 A Study of AP’s News Reports from the Angle of Cooperative Principle
195 从关联理论角度看电影台词翻译—电影“小屁孩日记”的个案研究
196 英汉颜色词“红”的喻意和文化内涵研究
197 双语对认知发展的影响
198 中国传统文化中特色词语的翻译
199 现代叙事艺术与海明威的《永别了武器》
200 On the Narrative Arts of Hemingway's Short Stories----A Case Study of"A Clean Well-lighted Place"
东北师范大学
硕士学位论文
《傲慢与偏见》中的反讽:言语行为理论视角
姓名:陈婷
申请学位级别:硕士
专业:外国语言学及应用语言学
指导教师:张绍杰
20080501
摘要
本文以语用学中的言语行为理论为理论基础,就简?奥斯汀《傲慢与偏见》中的显著特色一反讽的使用进行了详尽的分析。
本文回顾了从文学和语言学角度分析反讽的理论研究,详细阐述了反讽与言语行为理论之间的关联,回顾了关于简?奥斯汀的反讽艺术及其在《傲慢与偏见》中的运用的文学研究和批评,最后本文就《傲慢与偏见》中的反讽运用进行了言语行为理论视角的个案研究。
随着语用学的发展,许多核心的语用理论都已被成功的运用于文学批评,从而产生了一门新的交叉学科一文学语用学,而言语行为理论则是该学科的主要理论,并且已得到广泛的运用。
反讽是奥斯汀《傲慢与偏见》一书中最显著的特色。然而,纵观文学领域的奥斯汀研究,先前的学者们在评论《傲慢与偏见》中的反讽艺术时,仅仅将目光聚焦在作者本身或作品的思想性、文学性方面。既然奥斯汀花费了如此多的时间来提炼她的语言,我们在研究她的作品时就不应忽视其语言技巧。
鉴于以上几点,本文运用Austin和Searle的言语行为理论对简?奥斯汀《傲慢与偏见》中的反讽进行了个案研究,以求验证语用理论,特别是言语行为理论,在文学研究方面的可行性。
关键词:言语行为理论反讽简?奥斯汀《傲慢与偏见》II
Abstract
Thisthesisisintendedtomakeironyin
a
detailedanalysisofthedominantfeature—
Jane
Austen’sPrideand
P吲udice
withintheframeworkofSpeechAct
Theoryinpragmatics.
Itreviewsapproachestoironyinbothliterary
andlinguisticfields,elaboratesthe
criticism
connectionsbetweenironyandspeechacttheory,presentspreviousliterary
on
J趾e
Austen,SiionyinPrideandP耐udice,and
finally
makes
acase
analysisof
thefeatureinthefictionfromtheperspectiveofspeechacttheory.
Withthedevelopment
ofpragmatics,manyofits
core
a
theorieshavefound
a
successfulapplicationinliterarycriticism,thusemerged
standsas
LiteraryPragmatics,inwhichspeechacttheorywide
a
newinterdiscipline—
dominanttheoryandhasa
rangeofapplication.
Ironvis
the
most
outstanding
characteristicinAusten’SnovelPride
on
and
or
Pre{udice.However,inliterarystudies,previousscholarsonlyfocus
theauthor
id∞logical
contentintheircriticsofironyinPrideand
SO
Pr自udice.Sincethe
have
noreason
novelist
herselfinvestedher
muchtime
on
refiningherlanguage,we
toneglect
language
techniqueinstudy.
on
Inviewoftheabove,thisdissertationdrawstheoryinthecaseanalysisofironyin
Austin
and
Searle’Sspeech
act
Jane
Austen’sPrideand
act
Prejudice,toaffirm
the
feasibilityofapplyingpragmatictheories,speech
studies.
theoryinparticular,inliterary
Keywords:SpeechActTheory
irony
Jane
Austcn
PrideandPrejudice
独创性声明
本人郑重声明:所提交的学位论文是本人在导师指导下独立进行研究工作所取得的成果。据我所知,除了特另tlDn以标注和致谢的地方外,论文中不包含其他人已经发表或撰写过的研究成果。对本人的研究做出重要贡献的个人和集体,均已在文中作了明确的说明。本声明的法律结果由本人承担。
学位论文作者签名:日期:加哆.6.8
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(保密的学位论文在解密后适用本授权书)
,
学位论文作者签名:
日期:指导教师签名:Et亏乞锄声,≯期:7卯彦.石.彦
学位论文作者毕业后去向:
工作单位:
通讯地址:电话:邮编:
Acknowledgements
Thecompletionofthisthesiscouldneverhavebeenpossiblewithoutthehelpofmyteachers,myfriendsandmyfamily.
Firstandforemost,1wouldliketoexpressmyheartfeltgratitudetomysupervisor,ProfessorZhangShaojie.Withouthisenlighteninginstruction,stimulatingcommentsandinsightfulguidance,thisthesiscouldneverhavecomeintothewesemversion.Hisencouragementandadvicealealwaystherewheninneed.ProfessorZhangalsopouredconsiderabletimeandenergyinreadingandrevisingmydraftspatientlyandconscientiously.
IWOuldliketogivemyspecialthankstoalltheteachersintheSchoolofForeignLan星皿ages,NortheastNormalUniversity.TothemIowemuchofknowledge,whichlaysagoodfoundationofmythesis.
AtlaSt.1wouldliketoexpressmygratitudetoallmyfriendsandmyfamilywhohavehelpedmegreatlyinmystudyandhavegivenmetimelyencouragement?
-——————————————————-————————————————————————————————————一东北师范大学硕士学位论文
(d)Socratickony.
(http://www.bartleby.com/61/61/10236100.html)
4.Webster(1913):
(a)Dissimulation;ignorancefeignedforthepurposeofconfoundingorprovokingallantagonist;
(b)Asortofhumor,ridicule,orlightsarcasm,whichadoptsamodeofspeechthemeaningofwhichiscontrarytotheliteralsenseofthewords.
(http://www.hydroponicsearch.com/spelling/simplesearch.php)
Alltheabovedefinitionsattempttodescribethenatureofironyfrombothformandfunction.Andthefirstthreedictionariesgivequite
coveracomprehensiveviewofirony,allexplainedthesmcetheyalmost
wordnoteverypossibleaspectsoftheword,andtheyonlyfromthelinguisticperspectivebutalsohavetakentheliteraryperspectiveintoconsideration.However,theabovedefinitionsallhaveshortcomings.Noneofthemprovideaneffectivewaytoidentifyironyfromnon.irony.
toTherearemanykindsofclassificationsofironyaccordingdifferentstandards.
Themost
(sometimescommondistinctionofironyinliteraryandrhetoricalareasisbetweencalledrhetoricalverbalirony(alsoirony),dramaticironyandcosmicironycalledsituationalirony).Beingthemoststraightforwardkindofirony,
orverbalironyisparticularlyemployedformepurposeofridicule,mockerycontempt.
Sometimes,verbalironyisalsocalledsarcasm,wherethespeakerintentionallyexpressestheoppositeofwhathebelieves,andexpectstheaudiencetorecognizethedissembling.Indramaticirony,usuallyitistheaudiencethatbecomesawareofthecontradictionintheplotwhilethecharactersthemselvesarequiteunconsciousofthe
orclue.Eithertheaudiencealreadyknowsmorethanthecharactersotherelementsof
totheplayshowthediscrepancy.Cosmicironysuggeststheuniverse’Sindifference
theeffortsofman.Being
theresultsofthingsignorantofhumanbeings’desires,Godortheuniverseturnsoutofpeople’Sexpectations.
The
Andheabovekindofclassificationisalsoacceptedintoverbalironyandadoptedbysomelinguists.ironyandironyoffate.irony,directiveHaverkate(1990)dividesironyfurthercategorizedirony,dramaticintoassertiveverbalirony,commissiveirony
classificationin
inandexpressiveirony.Ofcourse,therearemanyotherwaysofwhateverclassificationitmaybe,thebasicdistinctionlinguistics.Butlinguisticsisnaturallymadebetweenverbalironyandsituationalirony.Sincelinguisticsisbasicallythescientificstudyoflanguage,thelanguagephenomenon—verbalironyiSdefinitelyitsfocus.3
dealtwithintheframeworkofpragmatics,andheembarkedspecificrequirements
a
on
findingout“which
tobe
moregeneralpragmatictheorymustfulfillinorder
successfullyappliedinthestudyof
t
literature”(ibid:25).Hesuggestswe‘'treat
literature’itself
asa
conditions’’
specificspeechactwithitsownappropriateness
(ibid:36).Furthermore,VanDijk
distinguishedthe‘'macrospeechacts’’and‘‘micro
second
speechacts”inliteraryworks,‘'thefirstdeterminethewholediscourse,the
merelycharacterizingtheindividualof‘‘literature”,or
speech
a
sentencesofthediscourse”,andtheconception
asa
literarygenre,wasalsoemphasizedtobetaken
distinctmacro
act(ibid:36).
a
InToward
reasons
SpeechActTheoryofLiteraryDiscourse,Mary
no
Louise
Pratt(1977)
theories
literarydiscourseandordinarylanguagehold
adoptedto
analyzenatural
discrepancy,andthe
which
are
languageCanbewellappliedintoliterary
criticism:
Thereis
a
no
valid
reasonto
assanlethatlanguagestopsbeingitselfwhenit
enters
literarywork...itisbothpossible
US
and
necessarytodevelop
a
unifiedtheoryof
use
discoursewhichallows
totalkaboutliterature
inthesametermswe
totalk
aboutalltheotherthingspeopledowithlanguage.
(Pratt,1977:vii)
Prattabout
argues
thatAustinandSearle’Sspeechacttheoryprovides
notonlyin
a
wayoftalking
utterances
ofthe
terms
oftheirsurfacegrammaticalpropertiesbutalsoin
ale
terms
contextin
whichthey
made,theintentions,attitudesandexpectations
oftheparticipants,andtherelationshipsexistingbetweenapplyingspeechacttheorytospecificliterary
participants.Thus,by
dialogues,wecan
texts,especially
revealthethemeoftheliterarytexts,thewriter’Sattitudetowardthecharactershe/she
Reates,thecharacteristicsthem.
and
fateofthecharacters
andtherelationshipbetween
neaforementionedtheoriesandstudiesseriouslychallengedthetraditional
pointsofviewofAustinandSearle,whobothexcludedliterarydiscoursefromthe
study
on
speech
acttheory,takentheliterarydiscourseaspurelyfictional.
asone
Nowadays,theapplicationoflinguisticsintoliteraturestands
ofthemost
activeandoriginalfieldsinliteraryresearch.Nevertheless,inactualtextonlystudy
aspecific
on
analysis,
dramaandpoetry
Canfindthiskindofapplication.Fewpeopleexplored
literarywork,especiallynovels,fromtheperspectiveofspeechacttheory.
6
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
1.4TheoreticalFramework,LanguageDataandThesis
Organization
Concludedfromtheabovesections,thisthesisattemptstoadoptspeechacttheoryandmake
inPrideandaqualitativecaseanalysisofJaneAusten’Sdominantfeature—ironyPrejudice,aimingtofindconvincingillustrationswithspeechacttheory
actastheframework,affirmingthattheapplicationofspeech
criticismandappreciationhas
feasible.
BasedonatheoryinliteraryispracticalandsolidtheoreticalfoundationandAustinandSearle’Sspeechacttheory(detailedaccountinpart3),Van
fromDijk’Sdistinctionofmacroandmicrospeechacts,andHaverkate’Sfourtypesofanverbalirony(see3.2),thethesiswillanalyzetheironyinPride
bothmacroP嘲udiceandmicroperspectives,sixsubcategoriesindetail.
Alltheexamplesinthecase
TheyareanalysisareselectedfromPrideandPrejudice。alltypicallyironicinnature.
Thepaperconsistsofsixparts.
PartOnepresentsabriefintroductiontothethesistopic——irony,thetargetedlanguagedata—JaneAustenjSPrideandPr自udice,researchmethodologyandtheorganizationofthethesis.
PartTwoisdevotedtoliterature
begivenspecificaccountin
PartThreemakesareview.Thedisciplines.ondifferentapproachestoironyaretorelevantfour-foldanalysistherelationshipbetweenspeechacttheoryandirony.
aPartFourmakessurveyofJaneAusten’Sironyandthelanguagephenomenain
PrideandPrejudiceintheliterarystudies。
PartFiveisthecaseanalysisofironyinPrideandPrejudicewithinthetheoreticalframeworkofspeechacttheory.
PartSixistheconclusion.Ageneralsummaryismadepossibletheoreticalandwillbefollowedbyandpracticalsignificanceofthethesis,togetherwithlimitationsandsuggestionsforfurtherresearchefforts.7
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
2.DifferentApproachestoIrony
2.1
Etymology,Historical
Irony
DevelopmentandLiterary
Accountof
Theterm‘‘irony’’rootedinthecharacter‘‘eiron’’in
a
Greekcomedy.Beingand
a
humbleandcraftyunderdog,“eiron'’defeatsthe“alazon”fromtime
to
stupid
boastfhlcharacter
timebyusinghis
wit.The
Greek
word“eironeia”,meaning
one
toSocratesby
“irony”.firstappearedinPlato’SRepublic.“Eironeia'’wasapplied
ofhisvictims.Itrefers
tothoseunderstatementsinthe
nature
ofdissimulationin
particular.(Gooch,1987:95)
The
analyzed
attractedSocrates.He
specialcharacterofironyinancientGreekplays
it
as
the
one
pretendingtobe
ignorantandwithoutknowledge,while
constantly
attheend.
tryingtogainknowledgethroughothers,butinevitablefailing
Heobservedthatironydenoted
Then
hefoundthatsome
discrepancybetweenappearanceandthereality.
utterancesindailyhumancommunicationsharedthenature
a
aSa
ofirony.Therefore.heviewedironythiswayofspeech
asa
particularformofconversation,andadopted
dialecticmethodinhisownconversation.Socratesoftenasked
hisinterlocutorsseeminglyinnocuousandnaivequestions,bywhichheexposedthe
vanity
or
illogicalityofthe
interlocutor’Sproposition
andfinally
undermined
the
interlocutor’Scase.Theironyentertainedthoseonlookerswho
knew
thatSocratesWas
muchwiserthanhelethimselftobe
on
thesurfaceandwhomightperceiveslightly
in
SO
advancethedirectionthatthose“naive”questionswouldtake.SuchironyWasespecially
andnotablyoccurredinSocratesconversationthatitbecame
tobe
known
aS“Socraticirony”.Thiswastheinitialstageofirony,meaning“feignedignorance”.
inthetraditionalwesternculture
a
(DictionaryoftheHistoryofIdeas,volume
2:627.634;金慧敏,2006:8—9)
enjoys
ofthemtalked
Theaestheticstatusandvalue
thatirony
Can
bedatedbacktoAristotleandAristotledidnotthinkthat
a
Quintilian.Both
lotaboutirony.
personcouldbetotallymockeryunlesstheperson
to
Wasacting
aS
anotherin
a
play,whichmadePlato’Sideasseemimpossible
him.He
8
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
alsoattributedtheelementofdualitytoirony,describingitpraiseby
as
blamebypraise
or
blame.This
dichotomyofironyiswidelyacknowledgedbycontemporary
as
scholarsandresearchers,whoturntoshowmoreinterestindescribingirony
blame
bypraisesinceinpracticalapplicationofironythefrequencyofthepraisebyblame
casesisquitelow.
InAristotle’SclassicalworkRhetoric,therhetoricmastermadebetweenirony
a
comparison
and
parody.Heconcludedthatthe
on
use
ofironyincarnated
use
gentleman
demeanorandWasexquisite,while
ofananticandWasflattering
theother
hand,theofparodywasthetrick
andfescennine.Theaestheticmoodandcompetenceof
detectingwriters’intentionsthroughtheirfeint
language
couldonlybepossessedby
a
as
gentlemen.Obviously,Aristotlefavoredirony.Hesawit
whichtheironistsamusethemselves
nobleform
ofjesting,in
type
and
notnecessarilyother
participants.This
ofcaballerostylethatAristotleadvocatedhasbeenpasseddownsincethen.(金慧敏,
2006:9;DictionaryoftheHistoryofIdeas,volume
2:627—634)
Quintilian,the
Aristotle,gave
a
great
Roman
rhetoricianwholivedaround300yearslater
torhetorical
than
moregeneral
other
sense
irony.Observingthattheironist
intends
to
convey
than
whathe
actually
says,Quintilian
terms
irony
as
“diversiloquium’’or“the
use
ofexpressionscontrarytothethoughtofthespeaker”.In
irony,Quintilianmaintains
atthe
thatthe
speaker
states
theoppositeofwhathemeansand
one
sametimecommunicates
as
thatthestatedmessageWasnotthe
actually
intended.Heviewedirony
theincongruitybetweenliteralandfigurativemeanings,
namely,condemnationisexpressedcondemnation.The
by
sense
throughpraise,whilepraiseisconveyedthrough
use
ofindirectionthatmarksthe
ofironyiSnicelycaptured
Quintilian’Sviewpoint,buthisviewpointalsobearsinadequacyinthatverbal
a
indirectionalsocharacterizesthe
indirection
is
substantial
number
and
ofnon—ironicphenomena,inwhich
communicated
implicitly—metaphor,synecdoche,puns,
SOon.
a
conversationalimplicature,presupposition
Quintilian
alsodistinguishedironyintotwodifferentcategories:ironyas
trope
inwhichtheoppositeofthespeaker’Sthoughtextendedonlyto
a
fewwordsin
language;and
irony
asa
figureofthoughtinwhichtheoppositeofthe
or
speaker’S
a
thought
extended
toa
wholepassagediscourse,andtheirony
servesas
disguise
ofthespeaker’Swholemeaninginthediscourse.(DictionaryoftheHistoryofIdeas,
volume2:627—634)
“Ironia'’isthetermforironyinLatin,andthe
meaning
intent
ofthewordturnedintoin
the
simplylyingby
concealmentof
true
language
9
——
东北师范大学硕士学位论文——————————————————————————∑|_二二二-二_二二=::
(http://sc.tri-bit.corn/Irony).
Itwasnotuntil1502that
ironyWaSfirstmentionedinEnglishaS“yronVe”,
m船mngtheway
a
mailsays
or
one
andgivestounderstandthe
contrary.In
a
Europe,for
tWOnundredyears
moreironyWasregardedmainlyas
use
a
figureofspeech.The
tem
“irony”didnotcomeintogeneraluntil
lateinthe17tllcentury,orearlvinthel8tIl
century?Butinthisperiod,irony,asbeginningtoattain
a
modeofthinking,feelingandexpression,waS
highdegreeofmaturity.Alargenumberofdistinguishedwriters
1ncludingShakespeare,Dryden,Defoe,Swiftbeginningofthe
20th
century,the
word
and
Popehadusedironyadeptly.Bythe
new
corulotationsin
ofironv
“irony”obtained
Germany.Germanromantic
lay
in
criticsheldtheviewthatthe
contradictorynature
a
thecontradictorynatureoftheworld
in
and
peopleneeded
corresponding
attitude
perceivingtheworldasitWas.The
asense
term“irony”has
beenincreasinglvused
aIl
inthe20“1centurytodescribe
ofdetachment—anattitudeofmindheldbv
scene
obseⅣer
or
speakerwhenhedissociateshimselffromthe
andviews
everything
impartially.(DictionaryoftheHistoryofIdeas,volu】me2:627.6341
a
Now,theword“irony”isusuallyunderstoodinmeanlng
varies
varietyofirony
ways觚dits
become
aIl
from
person
to
person.The
study
of
a
has
Interdisciplinaryinterest.Thefollowingsectionwillgivestudies
on
surveyofthediversified
ironywithinthelinguisticsrealm.
2.2LinguisticAccountof
Irony
Thedevelopmentof
ironyinhistorytookquiteand
a
longtime.BesidesphilosopherS
rhetoricians,linguists
also
paidgreatattentionto
this‘'trope”.Aspreviouslv
n{ltIJrally,verbal
stated,linguisticsisbasicallythescientificstudyof
language.Thus
ironybecomesitsfocus.Thelinguisticaccountofironyreviewedinthissectionis
comprisedofthreemajorstreamsofstudies:thepragmaticapproaches,thecogIlitiveapproachesandthepsycholinguisticapproach.
2.2?1PragmaticApproachesto
Irony
2.2?1?1TheStandard
PragmaticApproach
Theclassicalviewof
ironyadoptedbymodernpragmatistsassumesthatironyis
a
special
form
oflanguageuse,bywhichwhatis
said(sentencemeaning)is
usedt0
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
communicatewhatisunsaid(speaker’Smeaning).Andtheveryfirstpragmaticview
ofironyistakenby
Grice(1975,1978).According
involved.nle
to
Griee,language
use
requiresthe
cooperationofthetwoparties
speakershouldgive
cluesofhis
communicativeintention
tofour
to
hishearer.Tobecooperative,thespeakershouldconform
maxims:(a)He
or
shouldprovideadequateamountof
a
information
thatitwill
not
betoolittletoo
muchin
given
situation;(b)Thismust
be
information
deliverthe
mustbetrue,in
be
a
concordwithwhathebelieves,andit
verifiable;(c)Theinformationmust
relevant
concise
tothetopicbeingdiscussed;and(d)Hemust
manner.T11espeaker
information
in
and
a
unambiguous
coherent
conforming
as
tothese
requirements
toachieve
guarantees
andstraightforwarddiscourse.However,sometimes
specialeffects,thespeakermayovertlyfloutthemaxims,SOdetecttheviolation
toenablehishearer
to
and
identifyhiscommunicativeintention.Thecooperativehearer
oven
alertedbythehint—theintention
violationofthemaxim—identifiesthe
speaker’S
and
figuresouthisintended
meaning(termed‘‘conversational
oftheaboveconversational
implicature’’
byGrice).
Gricelistsironydemonstrateshow
as
anexample
implicature,and
one
Can
accountforirony
as
a
caseoffloutingtheCooperative
Principle(CPfor
short
text)by
violatingthemaximof
quality(Grice,1975:34).At
firstsight,hispragmaticapproachtoironylooksmorepromisingapproaches.Buthisbriefaccountof
than
the
traditional
figurativelanguage(1975:53;1978:123-5)iS
reanalyze
thenotionof
verymuchintheclassicalrhetoricaltradition.Heattemptstofigurative
meaning
intermsofhiscategoryofconversationalimplicature.Thus,for
a
him,ironicutterancesconversationallyimplicate,ratherthanfigurativelymean,the
Grice’Sview,when
speakersays
contradictoryofwhatthey
literallysay.In
somethingwhichwouldovertlyviolatethemaximoftruthfulness,thatiSthemaxim
of
quality(Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobe
on
false),thehearerwillassumethat
willtryto
recover
the
maximisbeingobserved
propositionas
anotherlevel,and
which
a
somerelated
animplicature
speaker
a
observingthemaximmighthave
wanted
to
convey.Below,for
example,is
typical
and
classical
instance
ofironical
utterance
XiS
thatGriceusedwherethefirst
a
maxim
ofqualityisviolated:
finefriend.
oven
Griceregardsthe
violationofthemaximofquality
atthelevelof“whatis
case
said”(sentencemeaning)as
intheaboveclose
crucialtotheinterpretationofirony.Fortheofirony
on
example,Grice
betrayed
a
describes
a
situationinwhichX,withwhomAis
terms,has
secretofA'stoabusinessrival.孵西enthe
utteranceabove
ll
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
iSfalse.whichApresumestobeobvioustotheaudience,AiStakentotry“toget
across
someotherpropositionthanthe
one
hepurportstobeputtingforward...the
one
mostobviouslyrelatedpropositionisthecontradictoryofthe
putting“It’S
a
hepurportstobe
forward”(Grice,1975:34).According
a
tothispointview,theironic
utterance
lovelydayforpicnic(Theygofor
a
picnic
and
it
rains),”andthelike,should
notalovelyday
implicatethecontradictoryoftheirliteralmeanings,namely,it’S
for
a
aboveutteranceinfact
picnic,etc.Thisprediction,however,isnotproper.The
means
lovely
a
theopposite,notthecontradictory,ofitsliteralmeaning.Forinstance,“It’S
dayfor
a
a
picnic”initsironic
use
istakentoimplythatit’S
a
ratherawfuldayfor
picnic.
Comparedwiththetraditionalsemanticapproaches,Gl-ice’Sapproach
of
radicallypragmatic:theappropriateinterpretation
to
an
toironyis
ironical
utterance
isassumed
to
consistonly
ofconversational
implicatures,logically
torelieve
derived
according
pragmaticpattemsofinference.Hisproposalseems
semantic
theoryofthe
all
problemsofdefiningfigurativemeaningandderivingthefigurativemeaningfrom
utterance.Theseproblems,however,are
not
simplysolvedbytransferringthemfrom
thesemanticdomaintothepragmaticdomain.Inreality,Grice’SdeparturefromthetraditionalaccountofironyiSnotwhatthespeakerof
an
a
radicalone.ItiSbased
on
the
salTle
assumption:
ironical
utterance
intends
togetacross
istheoppositeofwhat
hehasliterallysaid.BothapproachesasSUlllethatwhentheliteralinterpretationis
improper,theappropriatefigurativeinterpretationsomehowcomes
to
thehearer’S
shouldbe
mind.Therefore.Grice
fromliteralmeaning
also
failstoexplainwhy
an
ironical
utterance
preferredtoitsliteralcounterpartandfailsto
toconversational
make
explicithowexactlythemove
implicatureismadeinthecaseofirony.
Grice’Saccountalsoflawsinthefactthattheviolationofothermaximsshowntotriggerironyaswell,asshownbySperber
Can
be
andWilson(1981)inthecaseof
a
understatement.Forexample,twopeoplearecaughtin
says,“Itseemstobe
downpour,and
one
ofthem
raining”(SperberandWilson,198
1:300).Inthiscase,Sperber
andWilson
pointoutthatthe
no
speaker
doesnotsaytheoppositeofwhathe
means,
onlyless.Thereseemstobe
doubtthattheexampledoesnotviolatethe
maximof
quality,butonlythemaximofrelevance(whatiSsaidiSobvious,hence
irrelevant)or
quantity(thespeakerisnotsaying
hasalso
enough).
Kaufer(1981:500.11
shownthattheviolationofanyofthemaxims
breachof
a
Can
beironical.Ironymayinvolve‘‘friends
are
no
maximaswell,aSintheexample
alwaystherewhentheyneedyou”.Thissentencefollowsall
fourmaxims
oftheca,butiSironical“becauseofitssloganthatconveys
weanobviouscontrastwithamuchmorecommonattitudediametricallyopposed”(Kaufer,1981:502).Therefore,acanconcludethatGrice’Stheoryistoorestrictedtogivefullexplanation.Theviolationofonemaximofqualityisnotsufficientforthecreationofirony.
GiorapointsoutanotherflawofGdce’Sapproach.InGrice’Smodel,thefirstmeaningofanironyisdiscardedandhencenolongeravailable(Giora,1995:241).
ofironyisnotsuppressedWhileonthecontrary,Gioraarguesthat,theliteralmeaning
andreplacedbytheironicmeaning.Someaspectsoftheliteralmeaningofironyareactuallyretainedandusedfort11eprocessingoftheimplicatedironicmeaning(ibid:240.1).
2.2.1.2Leech’SAccountofIrony
GLeechalsoagreeswithGrieeattainedbytakingtheformofatosomedegree.Hethinksthatironymaybeabreachofthequantitymaxim,ormoreoftenofbreachofthequalitymaxim.Inaddition,hehasputforwardtheIronyshorttext)whichtakesitsplacealongsidetheCPshortPrinciple(IPforandthePolitenessPrinciple(PPfortext)in
astheinterpersonalrhetoric.Accordingtohim,theIPCanbegenerallystatedfollows:
Ifyoumustcauseoffense,atleastdoSOinawaywhichdoesn’tovertlyconflict
remark、)l,iththePP,butallowsthehearertoarriveattheoffensivepointofyour
indirectly,bywayofimplicature.
(Leech,1983:82)
Let’Sconsiderthefollowingexample:A:We’1lallmissBillandLisa,won’twe?
Bill.B:Well,we’11allmiss
konytypicallytakestheAccordingtotheIP,wethecanformofbeingtooobviouslypolitefortheoccasion?utteranceininterpretthisironicalthisway:whatBsaysinBreallyexampleispolitetoAandisclearlynottrue.Therefore,whatmeansisimpolitetoAandtrue.Inthecase,BonlyconfirmspartofA'sopinionandviolatesthe
whilewithoutbeingoffended,Afiguresoutquantitymaxim.Alertedbythisviolation
theintendedmeaning,thatis,Lisaisnotanicepersonandwillnotbemissedbyother
added“butnotLisa'’inordertoobservethepeoplebesideshimself.IfBMaximof
Quantity,thenBwouldbeimpolite.Obviously,B’Sindirectreplyismotivatedby
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
politeness.
InLeech’Sview,theIP
polite.Inbeingpolite,acanmakethespeakerbeimpolitewhileseemingatobespeakerisoftenfacedwithclashbetweentheCPandthePP.Thespeakerhastochoosehowto“tradeoff,’oneagainsttheother.Butinbeingironic,aspeakerexploitsthePPinordertoupholdtheCP.The
aspeakerovervaluesthePP,SOheovertlybreaksmaximoftheCPinordertosticktothePP.Butthespeakeronly
breakstheCPonthesurface.ultimatelyhestillobservesit.ToquoteLeech:“We’reironicatsomeone’Sexpense,scoringoffothersbypolitenessthatisobviouslyinsincere,asasubstitutefor
orimpoliteness”(Leech,1983"142).LeechutterancesasaseesthatthereiSinsincerity,morelessobvious.inironical
theresultofthebreachoftheMaximofQualityorMaximofQuantity.Forexample:(1)Withfriends
(2)Billwantedlikehim,whoneedenemies?thatnewslikehe
ofwantedaholeinthehead.In(1)and(2),theMaxim
directQualityisviolatedbyimplicatureratherthanbystatement.Utterance(1)purports
atoexpressabeliefthatenemiesareagoodthing.Utterance(2)presents
onesimilarlyfavorableviewofholesinthehead.Ineitherofthesetwoutterances,thespeakerappearstomakeaninnocentassumptionwhichisapparentlyuntrue,andbythatmeansimplicatesthattheoppositeassumption,whichiSimpolite,iStrue(Leech,l983:142—3).2.2.2CognitiveApproachestoIrony
Mostformsofironyinvolvetheperceptionorawarenessof
actionsadiscrepancyorincongruitybetweenwords
betweenappearanceandtheirmeanings,orbetweenandtheirresults,orlinguistsargueandreality(Cuddon,1998:430).Modemcognitive
majorthatironyisoneofthefigurativemodeswherebypeopleconceptualizetheir
experience,and
thjIlkironically.ouruseandunderstandingofironyaremotivatedbythefactthatwe
2.2.2.1Relevance-basedEchoicMentionTheoryofIrony
Sperberand
accountWilsonpointoutthatGrice’Snotbreachtheclassicalpragmaticviewcannotforironiesthatdotruthfulnessrequirement(MaximofQuality).
aMoreover,theclassicalview,theyclaim,doesnotexplainwhyspeaker,whoCan
expresshisintendedmessagedirectly,shouldchoose,instead,toconveyitindirectly
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
bysayingtheoppositeofwhathemeans.Asinsight,Sperberandthekeyto
an
attempt
todevelopGdce’Sbasic
Wilson
putforwardthe
RelevanceTheory(1986).Theyarguehumancognition.The
any
that
an
explanationof
a
humancommunication
generalviewof
liesinthenotionofrelevance,a
productionof
an
notionthatisgroundedin
utterance
isrelevance—governed,SOisthecognitionofit.In
contexLwe
have
to
assumethatwhatpeoplesayisrelevant.
Although
an
ironic
utterance
is
a
specialtypeofpragmaticphenomenon,its
as
understanding,justas
thatofcommon
discourse,Can
Sperber
wellbecopedwithwithinthe
thatironyis
a
frameworkofRelevance
Theory.Therefore
andWilsonclaim
typeofechoicutterance.whichiSusedtoindicatethespeaker’Sattitudetotheopinionechoed.Inotherwords,theyanalyzeironywhich
as“a
varietyofechoicinterpretiveuse,in
thecommunicator
or
dissociates
himselfforthe
opinion
echoedwith
accompanyingridicule
therelevanceof
an
scom”(SperberandWilson,1992:75).Theyutterance
alsoholdthat
ironic
iSassumedtolieeitherintheinformationthe
utterancegivesaboutthecontentoftheattributedthoughtorintheinformationitgives
aboutthe
speaker’Sattitudetowardstheattributedthought.
The
notionof‘‘echo’’Sperberand
covers
Wilson
use
inanalyzingironyis
a
technical
one.Thescopeit
isratherbroadanditgoesbeyondwhatwouldgenerallybe
cases
understoodbytheordinaryword“echo”.Itincludesnotonly
ofdirectand
immediateechoesofsomeone’Sutterance,butalsoechoesofattributed
general
thought.
norms,universal
desires
or
standardexpectations(SperberandWilson,
1998:1-2).
ForSperber
andWilson,all
verbalironyisnecessarilyechoic.“Verbalirony,we
argue,invariablyinvolvestheexpressionofanattitudeofechoes
a
disapproval…Thespeaker
thoughtsheattributestosomeoneelse,whiledissociatingherselffromit、Ⅳitll
anythingfrommildridiculetosavagescorn'’(SperberandWilson,1992:60).
a
However,theechoicmentiontheoryisstillincompleteforofirony.Sperberall
cases
comprehensiveview
andWilson’S
notionofechoicinterpretationistoonarrowtoexplain
ofirony.Forexample:
Terry:I'dbepromotedbeforeyou.
Peter:Thankyouforinformingmeofyourpricelessopinion.
According
toSperberand
Wilson(1992),anutterance
or
is
an
the
echoicinterpretation
extent
of,orinterpretivelyresembles,anotherthought
utterance
to
thatthesetwo
above
propositionssharelogicalandcontextual
implications.Hence,theexample
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
cannotbeanalyzedas
an
interpretiveechobecauseitdoesnotshareanyimplications
doesitsharethemwithanygeneralnorm
or
淅m
Terry’Spreceding
utterance,nor
universaldesire.
Anotherproblemisthatironyis
It
can
notnecessarilyassociatedwithridiculeorscorn.
alsobe
a
formofplayfulhumor.
Ithinkthewashinghasn’t
dried.(Said
ona
veryrainy
day)
(Giora,1995:246)
Being
acase
ofironyinthespecifiedweathercondition,theutterancemeans
a
‘'thewashingmustbesoakedthrough”witll
toneofhumor.
2.2.2.2ThePretenseTheoryofIrony
HavingdiscoveredthedeficienciesoftheinitialSperberironyasechoicmention,Clarkand
statesthatironyisin
andWilson’Smodel
of
Gerrig(1984)propose
a
a
pretensetheory,which
an
fact
a
formofpretense,with
speaker“pretendingtobe
injudiciouspersonspeakingto
an
uninitiated
audience”(ibid:25).Theirtheoryis
notableforitsattempttoshiftthefocusfromtheutterancetotheparticipants.
Clark
and
Gerrigbasetheirtheory
on
Grice
and
Fowler’S
a
suggestions(ibid:25).
“IronyisintimatelyconnectedwiththeexpressionofIcannotsaysomethingironicallyunlesswhatI
feeling,attitude,orevaluation.
a
say
isintendedtoreflect
or
hostile
or
derogatoryjudgment
ora
feelingsuch
aS
indignation
one
contempt.Tobeironicalis,
amongotherthings,topretend,andwhile
such,to
announce
wants
thepretensetoberecognized
as
it
asa
pretensewouldspoilthe
a
effect”(Grice,1978:124—5).Fowler
utterancethatpostulatesadouble
(1965,PP.305-306)also
audience,consistingof
saysthat“Ironyis
formof
one
partythathearingshallhear
and
shallnot
understand,and
anotherpartythat.whenmoreis
meantthan
meetstheear,isawarebothofthatmore
bedefined
as
and
oftheoutsider’S
incomprehension.【It]may
meaning
the
use
ofwords
intendedtoconvey
one
totheuninitiatedpartof
secret
theaudienceandanother
to
theinitiated,thedelightofitlyinginthethespeaker'’(ClarkandGerrig,1984:26).
intimacysetup
betweenthelatterand
BaseduponGrice’SandFowler’Spointsofview,ClarkandGerrigillustratetheir
pretensetheoryasfollows:“SupposeSisspeakingtoA,theprimaryaddressee,andto
A,,whomaybepresent
pretendingtobe
or
absent,real
or
imaginary.In
sayingis,in
or
speaking
way
or
ironically,Sis
S’speaking
to
A’.WhatS’is
one
another,patently
or
a
uninformed
such
as
or
injudicious,worthy
or
ofa‘hostile
derogatoryjudgment
feeling
to
indignationcontempt’(Grice,1978,P.124).A,,inignorance,isintended
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
missthispretense
totakeSasspeakingsincerely.But
A,aspartofthe‘innercircle’,
(to
use
Fowler’S
phrase),is
intendedtosee
everything—thepretense,S’S
injudiciousness,A'sS’andA,may
ofIn
ignorance,andhenceS'sattitudetowardS’,A,,and
whatS’said.
people
berecognizable
individuals(1ikethe
TVweather
forecaster)or
recognizabletypes(1ikeopportunisticpoliticians)”(ClarkandGerrig,1984:26—7).afewwords,ClarkandGerrig(1984)holdtheviewthatinbeingironic,aspeakeris
aninjudiciouspersonspeaking
to
pretendingtobe
an
uninitiatedaudience;the
speaker
see
intendstheaddresseeoftheironytodiscoverthepretensebyhimselfthespeaker’Sattitudetowardthe
and
thereby
injudicious
speaker,theuninitiatedaudience
andthe
utterance.
111erecentversionofpretensetheoryby
as
Clark(19961argues
person,the
thatironyisviewed
jointpretense.Ratherthanassuming
animaginary
joint
pretenseview
a
assumesanimaginarysituation,inwhichthespeakerofironyisperformingcommunicative
act
serious
to
directedattheaddressee.Bothactualparticipantsareintended
thesalientcontrastsbetweenthedemonstrated
‘‘mutuallyappreciate
andactual
situations”(Clark,1996:368).
Althoughmention
and
pretense
are
similarconcepts,mentionis,asClarkand
can
Gerrig
note,a
farmorerestrictedconceptthanpretense.Thus,pretensetheory
be
showntobeabletohandle
somecasesthatmentiontheorywouldhaveproblems
dealingwith;moreover’pretensetheory
Can
be
expandedeasilyto
cover
dramaticand
situationalirony(ClarkandGerrig,1984:28-9).Butthetheoryisinsufficientinthe
factthatitisonlyableto
handlecounterfactualstatements.Sometimes
a
atrue
assertion,
forexample,“Yousurelyknow
all
lot,’’Can
beusedquReironicallywhenaddressedto
all
eruditebutboastfulindividual.Inthiscase,thestatementiStrue,butitis
insincere
compliment.nletheory
alsofailstospecifythe
means
ofconveyingironic
implications.Furthermore,thepretense
ofironyinthatitCanbeapplied
theoryistoopowerfulfor
an
adequate
theory
toallindirectspeechacts.
2.2.3PsyeholinguistieApproachtoIrony—Giora’SGradedSalienceHypothesis
Animportantcontributiontothestudyofironycomesfrom
Giora(1995,1997,
Giora,FeinandSchwartz,1998).Similar
nature.Shealsothinksthatirony
to
Grice’S,Giora’Stheoryisdichotomicin
makestheaddresseeprocessthesurface
meaning
whilegeneratingtheimplicature.Butinherview,comprehensionofbothfigurativeandliterallanguageisgovemedby
a
moregeneralprincipleofsalience(Giora,
1997:184).
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
Giora’Sanalysiscomprisesoftwoparts,whichshepublishedrespectivelyin1995and1997:OnIronyandNegationandThegradedsaliencehypothesis.
Thenotion‘‘indirectnegation’’indicatesthatironyinvolvesthepresenceofboththeliteralandtheimpliedmeanings
Understandingfigurative
andliterallanguage:
and
thattherelationship
between
thetwoisthatof
non-explicitnegation.Thisdiffersfromthetraditionalaccountinthatitsuggeststhatironydoesnotnecessarilyimplicateitsoppositebutsometimesintermediatevalues
on
thenegatedspectrum.Accordingtotheindirectnegationview,theironist’Saimistodrawattentionto
a
failedexpectation——tosome
to
significant
disparitybetweenwhatis
said,whichwouldusuallyleadsomeexpectation—andwhatis.Insteadofcanceling
theindirectlynegatedmessageandreplacingit、Ⅳith
anotherone(Clarkand
Gerrig.
1984;Grice,1975),ironyinindirectnegationtheoryretainsboththeexplicit
and
implicatedmessages
surfacemeaning
of
SOan
thatthedifferencebetweenthemironic
maybecomputed.Theboth
theprocessing
and
utterance
isinvolved
in
implicatureofthe
or
utterance.Furthermore,the
implicatedmessageismoreattenuated
mitigatedthanthe‘oppositeofwhatissaid’(Giora,1995:261).
Theindirectnegationtheoryfurthersuggeststhatironyismore
difficult
to
processthanliteralironyhasonly
one
language.Itdepartsfromtheechoicview,whichassumesthat
one
interpretationandinvolvesprocessingonly
meaning,and
whichconcludesthatironyisaseasytounderstandasnon—ironiclanguage.
havepriorityin
The
thenthe
gradedsaliencehypothesisstatesthatmoresalient
utterance’S
a
meanings
interpretation,i.e.,thespeakerprocessesfirstthe
mostsalientmeaningand
others(Giora,1997:187).Here,salienceof
conventionality(i.e.,whether
a
word
or
utteranceiS
defined
asa
functionofits
wordhasthatmeaningbyconvention;
inotherwords,ifitislistedinthelexiconashavingthat
meaning),familiarity(e.g.
frequentlyused
or
freedomismore
familiar
thanliberty);frequency(i.e.more
a
meanings
aremoresalient),and“givennessstatus”in
certainlinguistic
non—linguistic
three
context(ibid:185).Giora’SargumentsCanbesummed
aspects:salientinterpretationhasunconditionalpriorityThemostsalientmeaningof
a
upinthefollowing
over
lesssalientinterpretation:
word
oran
a
utteranceisalwaysactivated;anovel
sequentialprocess,wherebythesalient
interpretationofasalientmeaninginvolves
meaningisrejectedastheintendedmeaningandreinterpreted.Themoresalientthereinterpretedlanguage,themoredifficultitisinterpretationmustbemoredifficult
toderive
to
reject
astheintendedmeaning;novel
and
itshouldrequiremore
and
different
to
contextual
supportforits
derivation(ibid:200).Theseassumptionsareapplicable
bothfigurativeandliterallanguage.Hence,thecaseofironicutte啪cesinducesmcsameapplication.
忱oramakes№principalclaimsinheranalysis:literalmeaningsshouldstillbe
activated;andir011icalinte印retatioIlsavailableafternon-literalmeaningshavebeen
aresalientthanliteralmeanings,hencetheyshouldtakelongertoprocess.SoaccordingtoGiora’stheory,weprocessanutteranceashavelesSfollows:1)salientmeaningspriority;2)novelmeanings
itasareinterpretedbyaccessingthesalientmeaningfirst,rejectingtheintendedmeaning,andreinterpreting;3)novel
rejectsmeaningsareharder幻process(ibid:186)?In
1nsteadpostulatesotherwords,Giorathepriodtyofliteralmeaningandthepriorityofsalientmeanings(ibid:197).Thus,sherejectsthetradltlonalandGriceaninterpretationsofirony,whichrenderliteralmealling趾
processingof‘absolutepriority,whileretainingthedouble-stagemodel,sinceher
innovativeironiesrequiresbacktrackingaIldreinte即retation.
19
3.
SpeechActTheoryandIrony
Theterm“speechact’’wasoriginallyindicativeofspecific
an
actofusinglanguageunder
circumstances
toachievesome
objective.Both
in
writtenandspoken
communication,speechactsareinvolved.Later,J.L.Austin
actandshapedtheSpeechAct
and
J.R.Searledid
a
systematicstudyonspeech
Theory.
workisin
TheOxfordphilosopherAustin’Spublishedposthumouslyas
1955lecturesatHarvardUniversitywere
How
to
toDoThingswithWords(1962).Austin’S
manyaspectsanopposition
language.He
sometraditionalandinfluentialattitudestoward
isusedforfarmore
thanmerely“stating”,
cannotbesaidtobe
oneor
argues
that
language
‘‘describing’’or‘‘illustrating’’and
eithertrue
or
thatforthemostpart
all
utterances
users
false.Bymaking
utterance,languageperform
more
a
socialacts,whicharecalledthespeaker’Sintendedspeechacts.Austinproposesthat
speech
an
actconsistsofthree
elements:thespeakersayssomething,thespeakersignals
thespeechact
causes
an
associated
speech
a
act,and
effect
a
on
thelisteners
or
participants.Thus
and
three—folddistinctionismadeamong
sense
locutionaryact,bywhich
rulesof
theactofsayingsomethingmakespronunciation
in
a
languagebyfollowingthe
grammar;anillocutionaryact,whichistheintendedactionbythe
concern
speakerand
isthemainofthe
linguists;and
a
perlocutionaryact,whichisthe
concerns
effector‘take-up’ofanillocutionaryact.However,speechacttheorymainlyillocutionaryacts.
AfterAustin’SoriginalexplorationofSAT,John
R.Searle(1969,1979)madethe
mostimportantelaborationsinhiswork
to
systematizetheapproach.Hismajor
contributionslieinthreeaspects.First,heallocatesthecentralplacetocommunicative
intentions,based
on
the
assumption
thatof
a
speakerhaswants,beliefs
andintentions
a
thatareindexedinthe
performanceutterances.Second,hedevelopstypologyof
occur
speechacts,whichforhimisrootedintherangeofillocutionaryverbsthat
given
in
a
language.His
on
thirdcontributionisthedevelopmentof
a
theoryofindirect
a
speechacts,basedtheobservationthatbyutteringwhatappearstobe
statement,
language
users
oftenindirectlyperform
an
illocutionary
act.
3.1IndirectSpeechActandIrony
AccordingtoSearle,if,in
utterancestotally
a
specificcontext,theliteralmeaningsofwords
or
conform
towhatthespeakerintendtoconvey,then
wecallthem
directspeechacts.Insuchcases,the
speakerintendsto
produce
a
certainillocutionary
effectbygettingthehearerto
recognizehisintentiontoproduceitinvirtueofthe
hearer’Sknowledgeoftherulesthatgovemthe
direct
speech
utterance
duringtheinteraction.For
acts,performative
verbsandthree
sentence
pattems——imperative
appliedtocarry
sentence,interrogativesentence
outacts
anddeclarativesentence——areoften
of“order”,“request”,“question”,and“smtement”.
However,muchofpeople’Sverbalcommunicationisexpressedinratherindirect
ways,creating
a
potentialobstacle
course
forthehearer.Often,thespeaker’Sutterance
a
meanmg
andthesentence
meaningcome印artinvariousways,thatiS,when
speakermeant
uttersasentence,anotherillocutionwithadifferent
propositionalcontentis
simultaneously.Such
an
utteranceistobesharply
distinguishedfromthe
iscalled
one
inwhich
thespeakerdirectlytellsthehearertheinferred
results,and
an
indirectspeech
act,“inwhich
one
illocutionaryactis
performed
indirectlybywayof
performing
speechforceand
another”(Searle,1979:60).In
acts
Searle’Sopinion,afullthe
understandingofindirect
concepts:literal
mustbe
precededby
knowledgeoftwo
illocutionaryforce.LiteralsyntaxofanSincethe
forcedenotestheliteralmeaningformedbywords
and
utterance.Illocutionaryforceisequaltothefunctionofillocutionaryact.
use
ofironyexpressessomethingotherthanand
especiallytheoppositeof
theliteralmeaning,ironicalspeechactsare
necessarilyindirectspeechacts.Itisthe
case
thatin
all
ironicalspeechacttwopropositions,whichmustconflict‘?P1≠P2”.are
one
predicatedopposition
or
ispredicated
and
theotherisnegation
implied.“[They]must
or
bein
formal
to【onean】otherthrough
as
throughsome
opposing
semantic
relationshipsuch
complemenmfity,antonymy,contradiction,orconverseness.Ifno
suchformallynegativerelationshipseemstoexistmustbe
a
between
P1andP2,thentherestill
very
discerniblebut
perhapsnon-polar
difference”(Amante,1981:82).
metaphor,does
not
Searlebelievesthat‘‘Itisimportantreqmreffnyconventions,extralinguistic
or
toseethatirony,like
otherwise.Theprinciplesofconversation
andthegeneralrulesfor
performingspeechactsaresufficienttoprovidethebasicprinciplesof
irony”(Searle,1979:113).On
this
account,an
ironicutteranceisalso
utteranceofan
indirect.The
speaker
primaryillocutionaryact(PIA)performedinthe
ironic
second
isbeingironical
andthespeaker
does
SO
bywayof
performing
a
21
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
illocutionaryact(SIA).AndtheSIAisperformedbywayofuttering
aasentencetheliteralmeaningofwhichissuchthatitsliteralutteranceconstitutes
thatillocutionaryact.Therefore,it
PIAisnon.1iteral.performanceofCanbesaidthatinirony,theSIAisliteralwhilethe
3.2InsincerityandIrony
IronyisabletopresentUS、析thadoubleperspectivethatinvokestwouncoordinatedworldscharacterizedbytheexpressionofdoubtwherethereshouldbecertainty,ortheexpressionofcertaintywherethereshouldbedoubt.Itsetsupexpectationsthatitsubsequentlyoverturns.Tobeironic,thespeakerwouldhavetosaysomethingtoinvokeanalternativeworldwherecertaintiesarenotSOcertain,andthusthesincerityofthespeakeriscalledintoquestion.
AccordingtoSearle,a
whichisdeveloped
condition,sincerityonwell—formedspeechandessential
areasactmustmeetfourfelicityconditions,thebasisofAustin’Sidea:propositionalcondition,preparatoryconditioncondition.Taken‘'promising’’asallexample,Searle’Sfelicityconditionsfollowing:
PrepositionalconditionSpeaker(S)predicatesafutureact(A)ofSpeaker(S).PreparatoryconditionSbelievesthatdoingactAisinH’SbestinterestandthatS
candoA.
intendstodoactA.
anSincerityconditionSpeakerEssentialconditionSundertakesobligationtodoactA.
(Thomas,1996:94)
(HereHstands
Sincerityforhearer)aformsnecessaryconditionincommittinganyspeechact.刀le
becausesincerityconditionplaysanimportantrolesincerityofthespeaker
isthepresupposesthattheutteranceshouldreflectloyallywhathemeans.However,it
insinceritythatworksinironicspeechacts,duetothefactthatthepropositionconveyssomethingthatisagainsttherealintentionofthespeaker.Theviolationofthesincerityconditionisoftenregarded
Accordingtoasthebasisforthetriggeringofirony.speechactsAmante,ironicmustbeinsincere(1981:83).A
ironyisnotrestrictedtosignificantissuehighlightedbyR.Brown(1980)isthat
asassertions.Browninitiallydefinesironytheperformanceofaspeechactwithall
attendantflauntingoftheabsenceoftherequiredsincerityconditions.Inferredfrom
asBrown’Sdefinition,speechactsthatdonothavesincerityconditions,such
22greetings,
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
cannot
be
performed
ironically.Haverkatenotesthat
on
irony
canconcentrateon
predicates,onpropositions,andintentionalexpressionof
illocutionaryforce.Hethenstatesthat“ironyisthe
correspondsessentiallyto
insincerity”(1990:104),which
Brown’Sdefinition.Inhisarticle.Haverkatearguedmattheironicspeakerintendsthe
hearer
to
recognizehisinsincerity,inthatitistransparent
or
overt.Adetailed
discussionofvarioustypesofspeechactsup
a
andhow
on
they
Can
beappliedironicallytook
greatpercentageofthearticle.Based
a
Searle’Sclassificationofspeechacts,
Haverkateproceeded
pioneeringstudystatingthatironyisnotevenlydistributed
amongthefivecategoriesofspeech
expressivesanddeclarations.T,he
acts,namely,assertives,directives,commissives,
ofironicspeechacts
occur
majority
inthecasesof
assertives,andduetothefactthatsinceritydoesn’texistindeclarations,ironycannot
a
beproducedinthiscategoryofspeechacts.Haverkate’Sstudyprovides
valuable
to
resourcefortheanalysisofironyinspeechacts,butithasonlybeenapplied
languageingeneral.Thus,theauthorintendstoexploretheapplicationofHaverkate’Sstudyinliterarycriticism.
Glucksberg(1995)introducesthe
he
conceptof‘‘pragmaticinsincerity’’bywhichatleast
one
meant
that‘‘thespeakerhasviolated
ofthefelicityconditionsof
thenwent
on
well—formedspeech
state
acts,usuallythesincerity
a
condition”(p.52).He
to
that
pragmatic
insincerityisnecessarybutnot
sufficientconditionforthe
creation/perceptionofirony(p.53).The
or
othernecessaryconditionistheallusionto
one
“somepriorexpectation,norm
conventionthathasbeenviolatedin
way
or
another'’(p.53).(Attardo,144-5)
Theironicoperationofsincerityisintrinsicinperforminganyironicspeechacts
(vanDijk,1976:100).A
insincerity.By
successful
one
ironydependsmainly
on
theconditionof
theopposite.
notapplicable
performing
speechact,thespeaker
often
means
PerformativeverbsCanbeinsertedintoindirectperformatives,butitis
inthecaseofironicspeechacts,thatis,noperformativeverbsappearinironicspeechacts.Verbalironyisincompatiblewi戗lmetareferrentialexpressions,whichmaybe
empiricallyinferredfromthefactthattheredoes
notexista
performativeverb‘'to
ironize”(ibid:97).
3.3IllocutionaryForceandIrony
ItWasillustratedin3.1thatironicutterancesarenecessarilyindirectspeechacts
and
thesecond
illocutionaryactis
literalwhiletheprimary
illocutionaryactis
non.1iteral.IfitiSknownthathowthehearerunderstandsthe1iteralSIAfromthe
utterance
ofthesentence,then
howdoesheunderstandthenon.1iteral
use
PIA舶m
understandingtheliteralSIA?Searlehasconsideredindetailtheyoupassmethesalt?”atthedinnertablebyXas
a
ofaqueStion“Call
requestofYtopasstllesa】tinstead
ofjustasking
derive
a
questionaboutY’sabilitytodoSO.Hegavetensteps
necessaryforYto
therequestforcefromthe
tenstepsnecessaryto
get
utterance.Now
we
Call
followthesteps
a
and
infer
a
similar
theironicimplicaturefrom
seeminglyutterance.
Example:Onlearningherson(whohasalwayshad
again,themothergotrather
a
bad
record)played
truant
a
angryand
pledgedhisteacherthatshe、vould11ave
discussionwiththeson’sfatherforsolution。Andshesaidthe
following
teacher:
sentencetonle
Mother:That
willpleasehim.
Byproducingtheabove
utterance,themother
reallyintendedtome觚“T11at
will
definitelymakehimmad”.Abriefreconstructionofthestepsnecessarytode订ve舭
primaryillocutionfromtheliteralillocutioninnormalconversationwould
go嬲
follows:
Step1:Theteacherhascriticizedtheboy’Smisdeedtothemother,andinresponse
themotherhasmade
a
statementtothe
effectthatwhather
son
hasdonewillpleaseher
husband.(factsabout
the
conversation)
Step2:Itisassumedthatthemotheriscooperatingintheconversationandthatthereforeher
utterance
isintendedto
be
relevant.(principlesof
conversational
cooperation)
Step3.Arelevantresponsemust
be
one
ofapology,criticism,promise,or
embarrassmentetc.(theoryofspeechacts)
Step4:Butherliteral
utterance
Was
notoneof
these,and
SO
Was
notarelevant
response.(inferencefrom
Step
steps1and3)
5:Therefore,she
steps2and
probablymeansmorethanshesays.Assumingthather
orle.
remarkisrelevant,herprimaryillocutionary
pointmustdifferfromllerliteral
(inferencefrom
4)
Step6:ItisbelievedthatplayingtruantisopposedbyboththeteacheraIldthe
parents.(factualbackgroundinformation)
Step
7:Therefore,it
son’s
isdoubtlessthat
notonly
she,butalsoherhusband.willget
madabouttheir
misdeed.(inferencefrom
on
step61
or
on
Step8:Apreparatorycondition
theacceptanceofcriticism
actpredicated
anyother
commissionistheability
to
perform
the
inthepropositionalcontent
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
。—————————————————————————_————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————●——-——一condition.(theoryofspeechacts)
Step9:Therefore,themotherhassaidsomethingwiththeconsequencethatherson’smisdeedwillprobablydrivehisfathermad.(inferencefromsteps1,7and8)
Step10:Therefore,herprimaryillocutionarypointisprobablytobeironical.
steps5and9)(inferencefrom
InHaverkate’Sfourcategoriesofironicspeechacts,thespecificdeviationofthetwoillocutionaryforcesisasfollowing:inassertiveirony,thespeakerhimselfdoesnot
canbelievethepropositiontobetrue,buthehopesandensuresthatthehearerperceive
hisintentiontheotherway;indirectiveirony,thedeviationliesinthefactthatthepropositionisfarfromreasonable,aspecificcontext
thehearertorealizethatthe
deviationisformedonorsemanticincongruityenablesirony,thespeakerisemployingirony;incommissivethebasisofthefactthatbothoftheinterlocutorsknowthatⅡ1e
aspeakerhasnoabilitytoperformspecifictask,buthestillasksforitpurposefully;in
expressiveirony,thedeviationiscausedbytheinconsistencybetweenthepropositionandwhatthespeakerreallywantstoexpress.
3.4PerlocutionaryEffectandIrony
Differentfromtheliteralutterance,speakersmake
onuseofironyinordertoareproducecertainperlocutionaryeffectsthehearers.Theseeffectsbroughtaboutby
or‘‘breakingthepatternofexpectationofthepersonfacedwiththeironicutterance
carriesevent”(Haverkate,1990:79).Ironywithitselfastrongerillocutionaryforce
inachievinghisthandirectspeechacts,whichturnsouttofacilitatethespeaker
act
aanticipatedobjective.Asuseamoreeffectiveandforcefulspeechoncomparedwithdirectones,thevarietyofcontextualfactorsinofironydependstwokindsoffactors:oneis
communication;theotherispeople’Spsychologicalstate.Inspecific
situation,thecommunicativespeakerwill,consciouslyorunconsciously,adoptcorrespondingdevicestoexpresswhatheintendstomean.Therefore,ironicspeechactsappearmoremovingandexpressive.Theheareroftentendstoexpectthetruthofthepropositionconcemed.
thehearerrealizesthattheWhencommonexpectationofrelevanceisviolatedintentionallybythespeaker,hewillattempttoperceivethespecificillocutionaryforcewhichthelocutionaryactcarries.Theillocutionaryforceisperceivedonthebasisofthe
ormismatchbetweenthespeaker’Srealattitudeorexpectationandthestatedattitude
expectation.Theperceivedillocutionaryforce,inturn,producesgreaterpsychologicalandfunctionaleffectsonthehearersthanthatofdirectspeechacts.
Besidesthesocial
majorpsychologicaleffect,employing
effects.Irony
reveals
a
ironylot
can
alsoachievecertain
communicative
andcommunicative
aboutme
constructionoffriendship,whichis
apparentlynottotallyorientedtowardsdisplaying
harmony.Peoplehave
tofind
strategiestodealwiththeir
di虢rences
andadhereto
to
certainsocialconventionsatthebe
a
sametimeindailycommunication.Andironyseems
socialdifferences
or
veryproductive
and
acceptablewaytocommunicate
one
iust
differentsituationalexpectations.On
hand,speakers
use
ironytobuildin-group
ona
solidaritythroughsharedplay.Thefactthatironyshared
set
understanding?reliesverymuch
ofassumptions
makesittheperfecttoolforcreationofintimacvand
familiarity.It
usea
Can
therebyfosterthecommongroundandcreatetrust.Peoplefrequentlv
a
simpleformofverbalironytoforgebondswith
tocreate
on
new
acquaintance.Shared
irony
serves
an
in—groupfeeling
andallowsthemembersto
re.affirm
thein.group.
HoweveL
theother
hand,for
thesamereasonofitsneedofshared
knowledgeand
commongroundforinterpretation,ironyCanexcludeoutsiders.By
usingirony,the
speakerintendstoconveythey
are
a
disassociatingattitudeandsomeotherimplicationsthat
psychologicallyassociatedwithconfederatesanddissociatedwithoutsiderS.In
socialcommunication,peopleusuallyavoidoffensiveremarks
and
trytobepoliteto
and
respecteachother.Seeminglyaggressive
on
thesurface,ironyactuallyislessexpressing
damaging
of“face”than
overt
hostilitywhilecriticism
or
showing
dissatisfaction
and
hand
thusitachievestheeffecttriestocriticize
or
ofpolitenessincommunication.The
over
speakeron
one
showhissuperiority
theaudiencewhile
on
theotherhandtakesintoaccountofthe
politenessconventioninsocialcommunication
and
keepshisintentionnottooconspicuous.Furthermore,ironyofferstheoptionof
toitspolitenesseffect.Ben.endonner
retractability,whichalsocontributes
lrony,becauseitallows
the
one
claimsthat
tostate
something
and
itsoppositeatthesametime,allows
speakerto
avoidany
sanctionsthat
mayfollowfromstatingdirectlywhathethinks.
a
Fromthisperspective,ironyallowsthe
speakertotake
noncommittalattitudetowal.ds
tolanguage
whatheissaying.Addinghumorandcomicelements
perlocutionaryeffect.It
isirony,Sanother
reverse
an
Canmake
languagevivid
andimpressive,and
embarrassing
itsplacein
or
awkwardsituationunexpectedly.Andirony’Shumoreffectoftenfinds
tellironicfeellike
jokes.Speakersmay
whogetthe
jokes
a
inordertoembarrassmehearersaIld
participants
jokemay
memberofagroupand
wewill
enjoythepleasure
ofhumor.Sometimesinverbalcommunication
or
encounterexpressing
difficuIt
truth,whichishardtobeputintowords
the
normal
utterancesbut
mustbeexpI.essedin
situation?However,irony
Can
serve
toreveal
thedifficulttruthbecauseitsstructure
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
enablesittousewords
atopointbeyondlanguage.Ironyadoptsanoddwayofrevealingstmingtheandemphasizinghardtruthbynotstatingitexplicitly,butratherby
con扛aryorthecontradictory,oroverstatingorunderstatingit.(GibbsandColston,2007:PartIV)
Irony’Spsychological,socialandcommunicativeeffectsmake
to
aitaverypowerfulweaponinverbalinteraction.Duethis,manyironistssuchasPlato,Chaucer,aShakespeare,andDickensregarditasvaluableweaponinlaunchingfierceattack
uponavarietyofsocialevils.
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
4.1ronyandJaneAusten’SPrideandPrejudiceinLiterary
Studies
4.1JaneAustenandHerIrony
JaneAusteniSnowconsidered
a
one
ofthegreatestwritersintheworld.But1t
ISnot
smoothprocessforhertogetthewell—deservedreputationandstatus.DuringJane
Austen’Slifetime.onlyfifteenearlyreviewswerewrittenforherworks.CharlotteBronte,oneof
a
numberofprominentmid19thcenturyauthorswhoharshlycriticized
Austen’Snovels,excludedherfromtheranksofgreatauthorsbecauseshethoughtthat
‘'thepassions
are
perfectlyunknowntoher”(Dowling,1983:4).Manyinsightful
Walter
critics,
however,realizedthevalueof
Jane
Austen’Sworks.Sir
Scottthoughthighlyof
Austen’S“exquisitetouch,whichrendersordinarycommonplacethingsandcharacters
interesting”(ibid:8).Whately,in
therepresentativeofAusten
a
a
1821,sawAustenas
a
distinctively“modem'’novelist,
George
Leweshailed
newschoolof
writing.Macaulayand
no
classicofliterature,andregardedheraslessthana“proseShakespeare’’
(Southam,1996:2).But
theseinfluential19mcenturycriticsonlyanalyzedthegeneral
thefirst
qualitiesofAusten’Sworks.Littlesubstantialcriticismappearedduringthe19thcentury.
In
the
second
halfof
19m
halfof
century,Jane
Austen’S
nephew,James
Edward
Austen-Leigh,publishedA
MemoirofJane
and
Austen,adetailedbibliographyofJane
on
Austen,in1870.Andwiththispublication,thecriticismHaving
a
JaneAustenmakesprogress.
clearerpictureaboutherlife
herwriting,reviewers’furtherinterestsin
Jane
Austenareawakenedanddiscussionsaboutherfictionsarelaunched.Acultof
appreciationwasencouraged,inwhichbiographicaldetailsandliterarycommentarywereeasilyanduncritically
mingled.(ibid:2)Also
Jane
in1
870,砌chard
Simpsonforthe
firsttimebroughtforththeissueofironyinAustenis
a
Austen’Snovels.‘‘Simpson’S
Jane
genius,inoutlookessentiallycritical,limitedinherscope,yetremarkable
a
forthepowerofironywithwhichshesearchestheconduct
valuesofhersociety”
(ibid:3).Simpson’Sviewhad
no
antecedents
and
no
immediatefollowing.Itawakened
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
noresponseinVictorianthoughtandfor
nomanyyearsthisunderstandingofJaneAusten’Scontrollingironyplayed
thispartinthediscussionofthenovelist’Sart.Duringasaperiod,JaneAustenwasdescribedbenignandpiousspinsteraunt,afactthatinhibitedtheprogressofseriousAustencriticism.Thus,althoughbothJaneAustenandherworksreceivedincreasingattentionattheendofthe19‘hcentury,thecriticshad‘‘noreadyapproachtothetechniquesofnarrative
whichthenovelandstructure,andthemodeofironyinvolve”(ibid:3),and
Materialsitremainedforthe20mcenturycriticstoexploreindepthvariousfacetsofJaneAusten’SClaytonHamiltoninhis
in1909,madecraftsmanship.andMethodsofFiction,publishedinNewY0rktechnicalanalysisaboutthefictionart:narrative,characters,plot,settingandthepointofviewinnarrative.He
characterillustrates“JaneAusten’Smethodofportrayingathroughtheconversationsofothersandtheself-revelationthat
aCanoccurinthesamesituation’’byquotingfromEmmaand‘‘discernssimilareffectinPrideand
lecturein1911P嘲udice…(Southam,1987:78).InEngland,A.C.Bradley’S
anotherimportantadvanceinmadediscussing“Jane
infindingAusten’Smoralityaandreligion,increditinghernovelswith‘wisdom’andstrongattachmenttoJohnsonand
Cowper”(ibid:79).Farter,in
andconcentratedappraisalof
perspectiveof1917,producedthegreatessaywhichpresented“asubtleJaneAusten’Sart,identifyingitsweaknessandstrength’’fromtheEuropeanliterature.HeexaminesAusten’Sartindetail,observingthe‘‘wovenpaRemofAustenianirony”,the“intensepreoccupationwithcharacter”andJaneAusten’Smasteryoverhermaterialsetc(ibid:92).MaryLascelles’SJaneAustenandHerArt,thefirstcomprehensivestudyoftheauthorandherworks,in1939,refreshestheapproachofthecriticismtradition.InexpoundingJaneAusten’Scraftoffiction,Lascellesemphasizesthebondbetweenthewriterandreader.LikeLascelles,D.w:Harding,withtheessayRegulatedHatred:anaspectoftheworkofJaneAusten,breaksnewgroundinshapingthemodemapproachestoJaneAusten,asSouthamclaims.HeviewsJaneAusten
producingassubversive,attackinghersocietyfromwithin,witllan“ungentleJane”whichisanti-tradition(ibid:128).Harding.together
suggestthatthereWasaMudrickandothersdarkersidetoAusten’Sironyandhumor.
HardinganalyzedtheironyinJaneAusten’Sworksfromtheperspectiveofpsychologyintheabove-mentionedessay.HethoughtthatJaneAustenis“adelicatesatirist,
ofrevealingwithinimitablelightnessoftouchthecomicfoiblesandamiableweakness
thepeoplewhomshelivedamongstandliked”(D.W.Harding,1998:6).HepointedoutthattheaimofAusten’Sironyis“tofindthemeansforunobtrusivespiritualsurvival,withoutopenconflictwiththefriendlypeoplearoundherwhosestandardsinsimpler29
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
thingsshecouldacceptandwhoseaffectionshegreatlyneeded’’andthesatireis“obviouslyameansnotofadmonitionbutofself-preservation”(ibid:12).InMudrick’Sview,Austen’Suseofironyistheprimarycharacteristicofherfiction,onethatrevealsheroftenambivalentperspectiveonthesocialvaluesofherworld.ModemAustencriticismneverstopstogrowandexpandsinwidthanddepth.Feminismandwoman’sstudiesseemtosteerthedirectionofcurrentAustencriticism.
4.2IronyinPrideandPrejudice
ThetraditionalandmodemcriticismonJaneAustenandherartheavilyinfluencetheapproachesandsubjectstheessaysandreviewschoosetostudyonPrideandPrejudice,themasterpieceandthemostfavoredworkofJaneAustenherselfThecriticisminthe19仇centuryweremerestory-telling,characterdepictionandmoralitylecturing,limitedinscopeandshallowinquality.ThebookseizedwidereadershipandWas“remarkablywell—received”(Southarn,1996:7)sinceitspublicationin1813,butitsreputationincriticalrealmproceedsslowly.Rightafteritspublication,thereviewerswereinnodoubtaboutthesuperiorityofthework,SheridanremarkedthatthebookWas‘‘oneofthecleverestthingsheeverread’’;WarrenHastings‘‘admiredthenovel,particularlythecharacterofElizabethBennet”;itwas“thefashionablenovelofthetime”,accordingtoAnnabellaMilbanke,“whoWasimpressedbyitsstrengthofcharacter”;WilliamGifford,theeditoroftheQuarterlyReview,remarkedinasimilarwayuponthenovel(ibid:7-8).But“theirnoticesareextremelylimitedinscopetheyremarkonpointswhichanymodemcriticwouldwanttomake——…thelivelinessofthecharacterizationandthevigourofthewritinginPrideandPrejudice,theunnaturalabruptnessofthechangeinDarcy,fromindifferencetoardour;and...JaneAustenWascommendedforcombiningamusementandethicalteaching”(ibid:7).Theyofferreadersmerelyoutlinesofthelovestoryandcharacteraccounts,beingsuperficialandsimplistic。Somecritics,likeLadyDarcy,complainedthatPrideandPrejudiceisshortofromanticinterestwhichmarksthepopularsentimentalandgothicfictionintheearly19mcentury.Theydepreciatedtherealism,theaccuracyandtruthofthecommonplaceinPrideandPr句udice,whichcomestoberecognizedasoneofthepropertiesofJaneAusten’Saccomplishmentsinartinmodemcriticism.
AsAustencriticismdeveloped,Saintsburyin1894madeanalysisaboutthecharacteristicofAusten’SsubtlehumorandexpressedhisfavoronMr.CollinsandElizabethBennet.Actually,thecriticismofPrideandPrejudiceisusuallyembodiedinthegeneraldiscussionaboutJaneAustenandherartaccomplishments,fewindividual30
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
pieces
are
devotedtothediscussion
tobethe
on
thisbook.Thecharacterizationthecomedyand
humorseem
mostconventionalaspectsindiscussingPrideandPrejudice。The
1945
rangeofmodemcriticismgrowsinthe20mcentury.ReubenA.Browerin
expositedAusten’SskillincontrollingtheironicimplicationofthedialogueswhichreflectanddefinethecharactersinPrideand
Prejudice.D.W.HardinganalyzedJane
and
tookPrideand
Austen!Sironyfromthepsychologicalperspectivestudy
Prejudice
asa
case.Mudrick
illustratedthefunctionofcomicirony
and
howitdiscriminates
charactersintodifferenttypes.RonaldPaulsonin1967reassessedtheemploymentof
satireconvention
and
itscontributiontoAusten’Srealism.
a
ForAusten,ironyismuchmore
wayofobservation
thananand
artistictechnique.
Shelaidbarecontradictionsanddiscordancesbetweensurface
nature,whishes
and
reality.Forexample,inthenovel,LadyCatherinedeBourghrushed
marriageofDarcy
topreventthe
andElizabeth,but
an
intheenditturnedouttofacilitatetheirunion;for
in
disclosing
a
Austen,ironyis
efficienttechniquethecomplexity
oflife
and
limitationsofpeople’Sknowledge.Itwasalso
main
source
ofcomedyandreading
favored
interestinherworks.IntheverybeginninginPrideand
Prejudice,Elizabeth
Wickhamfor
his
handsome
looksandsweetflattering,butdetestedsincereDarcy,
announcinghewasthelast
man
intheworldshewouldmarry.Later,shecameto
even
realizeherfaults.Ironically,sheAustenjSPrideand
becameMrs.Darcyintheendofthestory.In
throughnotonlynarrativetone,but
Prejudice。ironyWasdisplayed
not
alsotalentedcharacterpainting;through
thewholestructureofthenovel.
onlyspecificsituations
and
plots,butalso
Fromtheabove,wecan
see
thatthepreviousstudies
on
JaneAusten’sPrideand
as
Prejudiceand
issueironic
or
theartofironywovenintothenoveleithertaketheauthor
on
thecentral
merelyfocustheideologicalandliterarynatureofthenovel.Theartistic
and
to
language
inPrideand
Pr白udicehas
notbeen
systematicallyanalyzed,not
mentionanalysisfromthepragmatic
intotherefined
act
perspective.Therefore,this
makepossiblecontributions.
thesistriestoprobe
language
of
Jane
Austen’Sironyfromthepragmaticperspective,speech
to
theoryinparticular,andexpects
东北Ⅱ币范大学硕士学位论文
ACaseAnalysisofIronyinPrideand
Prejudice
ItiswellknownthatPrideandgreatestclassics,isfeaturedby
Prejudice,which
an
ranked
amongtheworld’S
irony.Withironictone.JaneAustentoldstoriesof
howyounggirlspursuedtheiridealhusbands,attackingthemerelycommercialsocialvalueprevailingatthattime.Austen’Sirony
structureof
Can
befoundinhernarration,thewhole
the
novelandthedialoguesbetweenthecharacters.AndaccordingtoVan
can
Dijk’Spoim
ofview,we
analyze
the
dominantandfundamental
acts
featurefromboth
themacroperspective,whichisironicspeech
performedbythenovelistinher
communicationwiththereader,namely,thewholestory’Snarrationandstructure,andthemicroperspective,whichistheironicspeechtheircommunication
toeach
acts
performedbythecharactersin
thenovel.
other,namely,thedialoguesin
5.1
Macro
IronicSpeechActs
MacroironicMacro
speech
Call
befurtherdividedintoliteralitony
andstructural
or
itony.
literalironyindicatesthatwhatthenarratorreallymeansinhis
hernarration
an
intheworkdeviatesfromitsliteralattitude
on
meaning.This
a
kindofironyclearlystates
thesurface,butimpliesatthesametime
quitedifferentone,usuallythe
opposim,whichiSwhatthenarratortrulywishestoexpress.Asformacrostructuralirony,insteadofusingspecificwords
or
sentences,thenarratorplotsthewholestory
with
an
ironicstructure.
5.1.1Literal
Irony(IronicNarration)
Inthenovel,Austenseldomdirectlyattacksratherexpressesherironyinpositivenarrations
or
criticizes
a
a
certainphenomena,but
with
satiricaltone.Rightatthevery
beginningofthenovel,Austenputsforwarda“universaltruth”.
Itis
a
truthuniversallyacknowledged
that
a
singlemaninpossessionofagood
fortunemustbeinwantofawife.
(Austen,2003:1)
Atthepointwe,beingordinaryreaders,encounterthissentence,possiblytheonly
32
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
knowledgewehaveaboutthe“natureofthewe
are
communicationsituation”,isthefactthat
reading
onea
a
novelcalledPrideand
Prejudice
writtenbysomeonecalledJane
US
Austen.Asconfronting
kindofliteraryworks,thelabel“novel”entitles
to
assumewe
are
narrativedisplaytext.Sincetheabovesentenceimmediatelyfollowsthe
a
titleofthenovel,weinferthatthesentenceiseitherevaluationstatementabouteventstobeinthissentenceisasserting
a
continuationoftheabstract
or
an
narrated(Pratt,1977:166).Themain
no
onecan
speechact
a
truth,butsurely
acceptthatsuch
sense
truthis
“universallyacknowledged”.Sohowdowereadersmake
ofwhatAustenis
saying?Weassumethat
as
thenovelistisspeaking
a
ironically,andunderstandherroughly
following:although
thisisnot
universal
truth,thesocialconventionsofmarriage
a
outof
moneyinsteadoflove
being
a
atthat
timemade
lotofpeoplebehaveinsuch
a
way,
Mrs.Bennet
prototype.Thenarratorseemstoclaimthisintheshoesofthose
thebachelorsdonotallagreewiththisstatement,nordothe
richbachelors,but
sure
readers.Sothenarratorinthenovel,namelyissayingsomethingobviouslynot
Jane
we
Austenherself,isbeinginsincere
see
and
true.When
Mrs.Bennettry
norlTl
to
marryoffher
daughterstoanyrich
man
withinsight,wethenrecognizethe
ofbehaviorthatis
beingsatirizedinthisnarration.ThisopeningremarkrevealsthethemeofPrideand
尸吲udice—how
and
girlsfromthebourgeoisieclasspursuetheirmarriagewithrichgentry,
italsosetsthetonefortherestofthenovel.Austendeliberatelyadopts
an
ironic
speechacttoridiculetheprevailing
property-and?status—firstvalue
of
marriage,andthis
openingremarkalertsthereaderstoinsightintothewholefictionbearingthis‘‘truth’’in
mind,aswellasperceivingthecharactersinthe
As
a
sanle
way.
matteroffact,itis
a
not
that“asinglemanoflargefortunemustbeinwantofa
、)l,ife”,butthat
we
singlewomanofsmallfortunemustbein
want
ofarichhusband.And
can
find
a
perfectproofinthefollowingparagraph:
Howeverlittleentering
a
known
thefeelings
orSO
viewsofsuch
a
manmaybe
on
hisfirst
neighbourhood,thistruthis
as
wellfixedinthemindsofthe
propertyofsome
oneor
surrounding
families
thatheisconsideredthe
rightful
otheroftheir
daughters.
(Austen,2003:1)
Thispassagerevealsthebackup‘‘evidence’’forthe‘‘universallytruth'’一itis“fixedinthemindsofthe
acknowledged
this,the
tozero.
surroundingfamilies”.‘‘Supported”by
considered”)adoptedinthe
authenticityofthe“truth”isautomaticallyreducedinreaders’minds,almost
Moreover,thepassive
voice
Che
isnarrationfurther
33
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
devaluessinglerichmen,puttingthemintothepositionofvictims.Thesesinglemen
are
treatedas‘'therightfulproperty”bytheyounggirls
as
Austenputsforward,which
highlystrengthenstheironictone.
Besidestheironicnarrationintheopeningparagraphs,thenarratoradoptsthetechniqueinthenarrativeintroductionanddepictionofmanycharacters.
(a)Mrs.BennetMrs.Bennet
is
a
successfullydepictedcharacterinthenovel.Though
on
sheisquite
obnoxious,westillcannotdenythefactthatshebecomesquitelivelythroughthelinesAustenspends
on
her.Sheisthemotherthatsetsallhermind
pursuer
marryingher
daughterswell,a
franticand
supporterofthe‘‘universallyacknowledgedtruth'’.
an
Rightinthefirstchapterofthebook,Austengives
overviewof
Mrs.Bennet’S
character.
HermindWaslessdifficult
todevelop.She
Was
a
woman
ofmeanunderstanding,
littleinformation,anduncertaintemper.WhensheWasdiscontentedshe
fancied
herself
nervous.Thebusinessofherlifewastogetherdaughtersmarried;itssolacewas
visitingandnews.
(ibid:3)
Theadjective“lessdifficult”in
readers
can
thisspeechactactuallyis
withoutany
an
understatement.We
herbehaviors
develop
Mrs.Bennet’Smind
difficulty,since
makeherthoughtsandpersonalityalmosttransparent.Byoutwardcriticismandimplyingirony,aBabbittisoutlinedfightinfrontofcommunicated
our
readers’eyes.Having
this‘‘formula”to
US
readersbythisnarrativespeechact,Austen
proceedsallMrs.Bennet’Sstoryfromthis
point.WhereverMrs.Bennetgoes,whoever
todo
shelikesanddislikes,whateversheordersElizabeththepurposeis
tochase
andencouragesLydia
to
do,
son—in—laws.
Beingtheonlybusinessofherlife,togethertopicandsourceof
daughters
marriedalsobecomesthe
Mrs.Bennet’S
never-failingbabbles.Pleasedbythesparklesoflovealreadygoes
on
betweenJane
andMr.Bingley,she
toindulgeherselfinthe
imagination
other
ofthemarriagebetweenthe
two.Beinginvited
tothe
ball,shecannothelptelling
peoplethe“delightingnews’’:
...hermotherwastalkingtothat
nothingelsebutofherexpectationthat
one
person(LadyLucas)freely,openly,and
be
soon
of
Janewouldmarried
to
Mr.Bingley.——It
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
wasananimatingsubject,andMrs.Bennetseemedincapableoffatiguewhileenumeratingtheadvantagesofthematch.
(ibid:86)
ThesubjectmakesMrs.Bennet“incapable
vexoffatigue”.Onthecontrary,herbehaviorsdeeplyElizabeth,and
Janeactuallyturnouttodamagethepossibleunionbetweenherdaughterandtherichsingleman
onMr.Bingley,sinceMr.DarcythinkstheBennetssettheireyesonly
friendfrompotentialtheBingleys’moneyandsetsouttoprotecthisdearharm.Mrs.Bennetlaysherownbedforherdisillusionment.
(b)TheBingleysisters
Inthenovel,theBingleysistersarequiteunpopularcharacters.Thoughcomingfromarichfamily,theyinpersonalityarenotSOwell—educated.Beingarrogant
toandhypocritical,theylookdownuponElizabethandherfamily,constantlytrying
theBennets,especiallyEliza,infrontofotherpeople.Andinthemocklanguage,wecandetectAusten’Snegativeattitudetowardsthetwocharactersbytheironysheemploys.
Onherfirstacquaintance、析ththeBingleysisters.Elizabethhasperceptedthesisters’personalitiesfromtheslightest,forming
belovedsister:arathercontradictoryopiniontoher
Theywereinfactveryfineladies;notdeficientingoodhumourwhentheywerepleased,notinthepowerofbeingagreeablewhentheychoseit;butproudandconceited.Theywererather
seminariesintown,had
spendingmorethantheyahandsome,hadbeeneducatedinoneofthefirstprivatefortuneoftwentythousandpounds,wereinthehabitofought,andofassociatingwithpeopleofrank;andwerethereforeineveryrespectentitledtOthiIll(wellofthemselves,andmeanlyofothers.
(ibid:11-2)
Thefirsttwosentencesformaparallelednarration,butthesmoothnessisinterruptedbythetransitconjunction“but”.OnthesurfaceAustenseemstobepraising
payattentiontoherwording,wetheBingleysisters,butwhenwereadcarefullyand
willnaturallyfindAusten’SinsincerityindoingSO.Readingtherestoftheparagraph,theopeningpraise‘‘veryfineladies”obviouslyintendstOeveryaspectentitledtothiI血wellofmeantheopposite,and“inthemselves.andmeanlyofothers”certainlyis
ofridiculous,judgingbycommonsense.Theself-indulgence,selfishnessandsnobbery
atheBingleysistersarerevealedclearlyinglance.
CaughtbyaheavyrainonherwaytoNetherfield,Janegetsaterriblecoldandhas35
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
tostayattheBingleysforafewdays.Elizabethgoestovisither,seeingsheisbynomeansgettingbetter.AndtheBingleysisters’reactiontowardsthisis:
Thesisters,onhearingthis,repeatedthreeorfourtimeshowmuchtheyweregrieved,howshockingitwastohaveabadcold,andhowexcessivelytheydislikedbeingillthemselves;andthenthoughtnomoreofthematter:andtheirindifferencetowardsJanewhennotimmediatelybeforethem,restoredElizabethtotheenjoymentofallheroriginaldislike.
(ibid:28)
Thethreeparalleled‘‘howmuch'’seemtotellUSreadershowcompassionatetheBingleysistersare.Butinnotimethesistersforgetthemattertotally.Theironictoneinthethree“howmuch”showsthenarratorsdeepdetestofthetwosistersindifference.Deepdown,theydon’tcareaboutothersata11.Thefeelingsandwordsareonlycourtesytheypaytotheirguest.
(c)Mr.Collins
Mr.CollinsisanotherSUCCESSofJaneAusten.HealwaysmakesUSreadershaveagoodlaugh,butnotbecauseofhishumorouswordsbutratherhissillyandawkwardcharacter.Hefrequentlypreachesuppeopleandhimselfinaveryimproperway,whichactuallyachievesthecounter-effects.AndhisoverlyobedienceandpraisetoLadyCatherinedeBourghmakeshimaclowninthenovel.
WhenhepaysavisittotheBennetsfamilyforthefirsttime,hehastomakecommendationofeveryoneandeverythinginthehouse:
…Mr.Collinsseemedneitherinneedofencouragement,norinclinedtobesilenthimself…HehadnotbeenlongseatedbeforehecomplimentedMrs.BennetonhavingSOfineafamilyofdaughters;saidhehadheardmuchoftheirbeauty,butthat,inthisinstance,famehadfallenshortofthetruth;andaddedthathedidnotdoubtherseeingthemallinduetimewelldisposedofinmarriage….Thehall,thedining-room,andallitsfurniturewereexaminedandpraised....
(ibid:55-6)
Itisdefinitelystrangetohaveeverycomerofone’Shousebeingpraised,evenifthedecorationisgrandeurindeed.AndthewayMr.Collinscomplimentsthebeautyofthegirlssurewillnotmakepeoplefeelcomfortable,withthewordsbeingSOexaggerated.Naturally,thecomplimentedtendstothinkthespeakerisbeing
东北师范大学硕士学位论文——.——————————————————————————_二—二=—二_二—二=二一一
disingenuousinhispraise.And
一
Mr.Collins’continuousemployment
ofsuchhigh
commendationlabelshimselfwithpedantry,whichmakesreaders
laugheveryriowand
then:
…Started
a
subject
inwhichheexpectedhimto
shine,byobservingthathe
seemedveryfortunateinhispatroness,LadyCatherinede
wishesandconsiderationforhiscomfort
appearedvery
nothavechosento
Bourgh’sa舵ntion
to1lis
remarkable.Mr.Bennet
could
beRer.Mr.Collinswaseloquent
inherpraise.The
a
subjectelevatedhim
morethanusualsolemnityofmanner,andwith
never
mostimportantaspecthepI?otestcd
a
thathehadaffability
inhislifewitnessedsuchbehaviourin
personof“mk—such
and
condescensionashehadhimself
experiencedfrom
Lady
Catherine….
(ibid:56)
Mr.Collinsalways
both
in
demonstrateshishumblenessandobediencetoLadyCatherine.
behaviors,duetothefactthatitisthis“great,,ladythat
a
his
utterancesandinhis
to
promoteshim
thepositionof
rector.Mr.Collins
regardsLadyCatherine
aS
his
pa∞oness,anditis“veryfortunate’’forhimtobefavored
bythislady,SOhepaysherlipservicewheneverhe
Can.
(d)LadyCatherinedeBourgh
Being
a
descendantof
an
oldnoblefamilyand
owning
a
large
estate,Lady
Catherineisquiteused
tobehaveinarather
arrogantandconceitedway.Shetalksto
a
otherpeopleoverbearingly,isaccustomedtocriticize
peoplearoundher,孤:ldmdkesithabitto
arrange
anythingpossibleforotherpeopleintheirlife.
When
todineat
LadyCatherineinvites
Mr.&Mrs.Collins,Elizabeth
to
andSir
Willi锄LucaS
Rosings,wereadersforthefirsttimegets
narrator’Seyes:
know
this“legendary,,ladv
throughthe
…Butwhatevershesaidwasspokenin
SO
authoritative
to
atoneas
markedher
self-importance,andbroughtMr.Wickhamimmediately
Elizabeth,smind:alldfrom
to
theobservationofthedayaltogetller,shebelieved
LadyCatherine
hadrepresented.
beexaCtlvwhathe
(ibid:140)
ThoughLadyCatherine’Sconceitiswellconcealedinhermannersandair’but舔
soon
as
she
speaks,her
on
dictatorytonegives
hercharacteraway.Sheplaceex缸.eme
triestodirectthings
11nporrtance
herownwords,ignoringothers’opinions,and
37
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
towardsthewayshefavored.
LadyCatherine’SproudinherpropertyandstatusbehaviorsduringthediningattheRosings:caneasilybeperceivedbyher
Aftersittingafewminutes,theywereallsenttooneofthewindowstoadmiretheview....AndLadyCatherinekindlyinformingthemthatitWasmuchbetterworthlookingatinthesummer....LadyCatherineseemedgratifiedbytheirexcessive
onadmiration,andgavemostgracioussmilesespeciallywhenanydish
athetableprovednoveltytothem.
(ibid:140—1)
Thinkinghighlyofherself,LadyCatherinefavorsflatteryandlikestoberespectedbyeveryone,evenifitiSoverlydone.
ElizabethsoonperceivedthatthoughthisgreatladyWasnotinthecommissionof
athepeaceforthecounty,shewasmostactivemagistrateinherownparish,the
minutestconcemsofwhichwerecarriedtoherbyMr.Collins;andwheneveranyofthecottagersweredisposedtobequarrelsome,discontented,ortoopoor,shesalliedforthintothevillagetosettletheirdifferences,silencetheircomplaints,andscoldthemintoharmonyandplenty.
(ibid:145-6)
AttachinggreatimportancetoherseleLadyCatherineviewsitflresponsibilityforhertomaintaintheharmonyinherparish,thussheinterfereswithanthecottagersbusinesswhenevershecan.ButthesolutionsheoffersiSscoldingthecomplainersandquarrelersintosilence.Anosy,bossyandsillyoldwomanisportrayedadequatelythroughthenarration.
(e)SirWilliamLucas
Being
Austenasaflatcharacter,SirandWilliamLueasisnotdepictedwithpungentironybyMrs.BennetMr.Collinsare.Yet,wecan
SirstillsenseAusten’Sironictoneinhernarrationofthis
ascharacter.WhenWilliamseesLadyCatherineatMr.Collins’shedropsby,
…SirWilliam,toElizabeth’Shighdiversion,wasstationedinthedoorwayinearnestcontemplationofthegreatnessbeforehim,andconstantlybowingwhenever
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
Miss
deBourghlookedthatway.
(ibid:137)
OnlyobservingLadyCathenneandherdaughterfromtalkingtothem,Sir
a
distanceandnot
even
William
showshishumblenesstothegreatlady
completely.The
choiceofwordingsuchas“station'’,“earnest'’and“constantly’’illustratesthenarrator’Sironicattitudeclearlyinthesentence.
WheninvitedtodineatRosings,Sir
William
Lucascannotextricate
himselffrom
theadmirationofthespectacularityofLadyCatherine’Sestate:
Inspiteofhavingbeenat
St.James’S,SirWilliamwasso
a
completelyawedbythe
a
grandeursurroundinghimthathehadbutjustcourageenoughtomake
andtakehisseatwithoutsaying
verylowbow,
word...
(ibid:139)
(f)Wickham
Owning
an
expressionofgoodnessinhiscountenance
andpossessing
an
openness
and
gentlenessinhis
manner,Wickham
easilywinsgirlshearts.AndintheBennets,
hissuperficial
bothElizabeth
and
from
Lydiahavefeelingsforhim.Butdeviated
on
qualities,hehasonlygotpoisonandevil
hismind.Hebehavesdissipatedly,doesnot
attend
toproperdutiesandseducesyounggirlsoutofhisdesireof
moneyandwealth.
HepersuadesMr.Darcy’Sfifteen.year-old
as
sisterGeorgianatoelopewithhiminorderto
on
snatchherlargefortune,aswellgetstoknowthetruthofDarcy
revenginghimself
Darcy.Later,whenElizabeth
andWickham’Sfeud,Wickhamplaysthe
an
sametricks
on
thefeatherbrainedLydiaBennet,whois、ⅣithElizabeth.hold
a
easypreyforhim.Thereaders,together
strongdetestoftheshameless
man:
Wickham
SO
Wasnotatall
moredistressedthanherselebuthismannerswerealways
beenexactlywhatthey
pleasingthathadhischaracterandhismarriage
ought,hisdelighted
smileS
and
hiseasyaddress,whileheclaimedtheirrelationship,wouldhave
not
nlema11.Elizabethhad
sat
beforebelievedhimquiteequal
no
tosuch
to
assurance;butshe
an
down,resolving
withinherselftodraw
limitsinfuture
theimpudenceof
impudentman.
(ibid:269)
revealspartofthe“follies
Throughallthenarrativespeechactsabove,Austen
and
nonsense,whimsandinconsistencies”ofthecharactersthatareportrayed,which
enables
US
readers
topenetratethroughthese
characters’dialogues
andbehaviorsinthe
39
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
restofthestory,and
endows
USa
bettercomprehensionofthecharacters
andthe
whole
fiction.
5.1.2Structural
Irony(DramaticIrony)
TheotheraspectofAusten’Smacroironyliesinheradoptionofstructuralirony.Asaforementioned,indramaticirony,thevoiceoftheInstead,thecharactersrevealthemselvesin
or
an
author(narrator)does
not
appear.
ironicpredicamentoftheirowncreation
a
oftheirfate’S.CertaincharactersinPrtdeandPre{udicehave
course
tatkr
unexpected
rumintheir
ofevents,whichfacilitatestheendingtodevelopintheopposite
directionfromtheirexpectationinthebeginningofthestory.Andthemosttypical
examplesaretheheroandheroineofthebook——Mr.DarcyandElizabethBennet.
(a)Mr.Darcy
Intraditionallovestories.weoften
see
handsome
herofallsinlovewiththe
beautifulheroineatfirstsight,thenthetwolivetooldageinprotagonistsinPrideandaffairisnot
a
conjugalbliss.And
the
Pr自udiceare
indeed
an
handsomeandbeautiful,but
theirlove
smoothjourney.Mr.Darcyis
idealcharacter.HeWasborntothepurple,
iSa“fine.tall
person”with“handsomefeatures”and“noblemien”,andhas‘'ten
heis“pride”in
sees
thousand
a
year”(ibid:7).But
nature,whichmakeshimharbor
rather,Mr.Darcy
no
admirationforElizabethwhenhe
atEliza
herinthefirstball.But
looks
withhiscaptiouseyes,
“Your[Bingley’S】sistersare
whomitwould
not
not
engaged,andthereisnot
to
anotherwomanintheroom
be
a
punishment
to
me
tostandup
with.”…“SheiStolerable;but
no
handsome
enough
temptme;andIamin
humour
at
presentto
give
consequencetoyoungladieswhoareslightedbyothermen.’’
(ibid:8)
Mr.Darcy’S
wordsandbehaviorarouserepulsioninElizabeth’Smind
and
heart.
HedeniesthatElizabethiSElizaforthesecond
pretty,and
shows
no
favortowardsher.Butwhenhemeets
time,andwithnothinghavingchanged,he
begins
to
findcharmin
Eliza’S
beautifuldarkeyes:
But
nosooner
hadhemadeitcleartohimselfandhisfriendsthatshehadhardly
a
goodfeatureinherface,than
he
began
tofinditwasrendered
uncommonly
intelligent
bythebeautifulexpressionofherdarkeyes.Tothisdiscoverysucceededsomeothers
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
equallymortifying.Thoughhehaddetectedwithacriticaleyemorethanonefailureof
andperfectsymmetryinherform,hewasforcedtoacknowledgeherfiguretobelight
pleasing;andinspiteofhisassertingthathermannerswerenotthoseofthefashionableworld,heWaScaughtbytheireasyplayfulness.
(ibid:18)
EnchantedbyElizabeth’Sbeautifuldarkeyes,light
playfulandpleasingform,andhereasy,manners,Mr.DarcymakesaproposalformarriagetoElizabethregardlessoftllebiggapbetweentheirfamilystatus.However,evenintheprocessofhisproposal,Mr.Darcyhas
familytoemphasizeonhowheovercomesvariousworries,suchasthebigagainsthiswill,hisreasonandevenobstacles,helikesElizaagainsthis
rousecharacteretc.Hiswordsareovertlyfeaturedbyhis“pride’’andconsequently
resentmentinElizainsteadofaffection.HoldinganinstinctiverevolttowardsDarcy’Sgentrypride,deludedby
ruinedherWickham’Swords,andstubbornlythinkingitisDarcythathasdownDarcy’Sproposal.
badsisterJane’Shappinessforlife,ElizafirmlyturnedaDarcywouldneverhavethoughtthathehasleftElizasuchimpression,andhe
becomes
writesatorealizehowsupercilioushisexternalbehaviorsandutterancesare.HethenlettertoElizaandexplainseverything.WhenDarcymeetsElizainPemberley,hebehavesrefinedandcourteous,whichdeeplytouchesElizabeth’Sheart.Intheend,
notMr.Darcymarriesthis“tolerablebut
inferiorhandsomeenoughtotemptme”girlfromanfamily,andheevenenduresWickham,whohegreatlydetest,tobehisbrother-in.1aw
(b)ElizabethBennet
asApparently,ElizabethisdepictedbyAustenthemostintellectcharacterinPride
andPre|udice.Inthefirstchapter,Elizabeth!Switandbrightness、ScommendedthroughMr.Bennet’S
sillypreferencetowardsheramongallhisdaughters一‘'theyareallandignorantlikeothergirls;butLizzyhassomethingmoreofquicknessthanhersisters”(ibid:3).AllthefatuityandfolliesoftheanticsinthefictionarepenetratedandcriticizedthroughElizabeth’Seyes,wordsandthoughts.JaneAustenherselfhasalsostraightforwardlyshowedherpreferenceofthisvivaciousheroine.Nevertheless,thisbelovedcharacterElizabethstilldoesnotsucceedinescapingAusten’Sironyinherfate.
Witty'insightfuland
sisters.Andcomparedcourageous,ElizabethnaturallystandsoutamongtheBennettothesnobbishBingleysisters,Elizapossessesdignityinher
onepersonalityandsuperiorityinherspirit.Inthatworldfulloffollies,sheisthe
onlywithsenseandandintellect.EvenSO,influencedbythesocialenvironment,thoughnot41
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
identifywiththe“universallyacknowledgedtruth”,Elizastillhastoconformtoacertainextent.Shealsohastosocialize晰thpeopleshemightnotlike,orevendetest;hastojoindancingballs,talksanddinners;hastobehaveinthewaythataladyoughttobehave.WhenshemeetsDarcyinthefirstball,sheisoffendedbyhisarrogantwordsandbehaviors,
…He【Mr.Darey]waslookedat、Ⅳithgreatadmirationforabouthalftheevening,tillhismannersgaveadisgustwhichturnedthetideofhispopularity;forhewasdiscoveredtobeproud,tobeabovehiscompany,andabovebeingpleased;andnotallhislargeestateinDerbyshirecouldthensavehimfromhavingamostforbidding,disagreeablecountenance,andbeingunworthytobecomparedwithhisfriend.
(ibid:7)
ButduetoElizabeth’Slivelyandplayfuldisposition,shetakesdelightinstrikingbacktheridiculousbehaviorsofMr.Darcy,andwinsrespectandaffectionofthemaninstead,demonstratinghercharacter.ShetakesupeverychanceinhertalkwithDarcytoattackhisarrogance.Elizabethhasa“beliefoftheinconsistencyofallhumancharacters”,holdingtheviewthat“littledependenceCanbeplacedontheappearanceofeithermeritorsense”(ibid:117).ButithappenstobeherselfthathasbeendeludedbyWickham’Scountenanceandmanners,withoutthoroughunderstandingofhischaracter.Outsidersseemorethantheinsiders.Eliza’SfallingforWickhamiswellperceivedinothers’eyes.Heraunthasremindedhertobecautiousinthisdeal,andherfriendCharlottehasalsocautionedher‘‘nottobeasimpletonandallowherfancyforWickhamtomakeherappearunpleasantintheeyesofamanoftentimeshisconsequence”(ibid:78).Unfortunately,ourwise—all—the-timeElizaturnsintoafool,loseshersense,andnotonlydecisivelydeclinesDarcy’Sproposal,butalsogoesontoafull.scalereprehensionagainsttheman.
“Fromtheverybeginning,fromthefirstmoment,Imayalmostsay,ofmyacquaintancewithyou,yourmannersimpressingme谢ththefullestbeliefofyourarrogance,yourconceit,andyourselfishdisdainofthefeelingsofothers,weresuchastoformthatgroundworkofdisapprobationonwhichsucceedingeventshavebuiltSOimmovableadislike;andIhadknownyouamonthbeforeIfeltthatyouwerethelastmanintheworldwhomIcouldeverbeprevailedonto瑚aHy”
(ibid:166)
Elizaisdeeplydriveninto‘‘prejudice’’againstpoorMr.Darcy.Andthefollowing42
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
events
provethefactthather
cause
rejection
isbased
on
mereprejudice.Coming
to
apprehensionofallin
andeffect,sheismovedby
Mr.Darcy’Scomprehension,falls
intheworld”whomshe“would
love谢th
him,andfinallymarriesthis“last
on
man
ever
beprevailedtomarry”.
(c)WickhamandMiss
Bingley
are
Forthesetwocharacterswho
deficientintheirmorals,Austenalso
a
arrangesan
ironicattackintheirdramaticfate.Thenovelistshowsexternalbehaviorsandinternal
strongcontrastbetweentheir
thoughts,betweentheirwordsandactions,betweentheir
are
deedswhentheysucceedintheirevilandtheirendingwhenthey
underexposure.
The
officers
oftheshireWereingeneral
a
verycreditable,gentlemanlike
as
set,and
thebestofthemwereofthepresentparty;butinperson,countenance,air
Mr.Wickhamwas
farbeyondthemml
andwalk…
(ibid:65)
Butafter
Wickham
carriesintoexecutionofhisimpudentelopement、析t11Lydia,
toashes:
theperfectimpression
vanishes
WickhamWas
so
notatall
moredistressedthanherself,buthismannerswerealways?
pleasingthathadhischaracterandhismarriagebeenexactlywhattheyought,his
smiles
and
hiseasyaddress,while
he
claimedtheirrelationship,wouldhavedelighted"
himquiteequal
no
thema11.Elizabethhad
notbeforebelieved
tosuch
assurance;butshe
satdown,resolvingwithinherselftodrawlimitsinfuturetotheimpudenceof
an
impudent
man.
(ibid:269)
and
Being
rich.MissBingleyrecognizesherselfwithsupedority,alwaystalks
thinksmeanlyofothers.Outofjealousy,shefrequentlymakesfunofElizabeth,aswell
as
Eliza’Srelatives,in
ordertobrew
Mr.Darcy’S
disliketowardsEliza,which
never
works,
‘‘Miss
has
no
ElizaBennet’’said
Miss
Bingley,“despises
cards.She
is
a
greatreaderand
sure
pleasureinanything
else.”…“InnursingyoursisterI
ain
youhave
pleasure”…
(ibid:30—1)
Besidesdefaming
Elizabeth
infrontof
Darcy,Miss
Bingleydoesnothesitatein
43
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
sacrificingherbrother’Shappinessinordertoprotectherownbenefits.ShewritesletterstoJanetoprovokemischiefin
awayfrom
oneJane’SaffectionforBingley,keepsinformationMr.Bingleytoprohibitmeetingbetweenthetwolovers,settingupobstaclesafteranother.However,ratherincomplianttoMissBingley’Swill,ElizabethandDarcygetmarried,togethercomestheknot—tyingbetweenherbrotherBingleyBennet.AndherandJanebittemessiSdisplayedinher“congratulations’’:
MissBingley’Scongratulationstoherbrotheronhisapproachingmarriagewereallthatwasaffectionateandinsincere.ShewroteeventoJaneontheoccasion,toexpressherdelight,andrepeatallherformerprofessionsofregard.JaneWasnotdeceived…
(ibid:330)
Byemployingstructuralironicspeechacts,bitbybitthefateoftheabovecharactersisuncoveredrespectively.Inthiscommunicationwithreaders,Austenallowstheperceptiveaudiencetoplayaknowledgeableroleinthedevelopmentofthestory.
orWhentheironicvictimbelievesinhisherdestiny,whichhasbeenshowncontrastto
thereality,togetherwiththefactthatthereadersareclearlyawareofthiscontradiction,astrikingeffectisproduced.Andthroughthisprocess,thecharactersbecomemorevividandlifelike.Justas
ones.Austenherselfagrees,everyonehassomefollies,eventhe】ovable
5.2MicroIronicSpeechActs
Themicroironyismanifestedbycommunicationsbetweenthecharacters,namelydialogues.InPrideandPrejudice,thedailylifeofthe18曲centurygentryinvolvescountlessvisits,dinnersanddances,whichwerethesocialcustomsandconventions
takeupathen.Andduring
Peopletalkto
gossipthesesocialevents,dialoguesgreatpercentageofthetime.thingsexchangetheirideasonscandalsaboutpeopletheydislike.Throughothers,commentonhappened,andeventhis,variouskindsofemotionsarerevealed,relationshipsarebound,theplotofthefictionisdevelopedandthedepiction
descriptionofcharactersisfulfilled.InPrideandPrejudice,Austenspendsfewlines
ofoncharacters’externalappearances,butratherletthecharactersexposetheirpersonalitiesthroughtheirownwords.
Asaforementioned,theanalysisofmicroironicspeechactswillbeinaccordancetoSearle’Scategories.ButasHaverkatehaspointedout,sincerityconditiondoes
nonotexistindeclarations,thusironycanbegeneratedinthiscategory.Consequently,
microironicspeechactswillbeexploredindetailinthefollowingfourcategories:44
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
assertives,directives,commissives
andexpressives.
5.2.1AssertiveIrony
TheillocutionarygoalofassertivespeechactsCan
bedefinedintermsofthe
speaker’Sintentionofgettingthehearertoacceptthepropositionalcontentofthe
utterance
astheexpressionofatrue
stateof
affairs(Searle,1969:66).In
to
otherwords,in
his
assertives,thespeakerintendsthehearer
accept
hisproposition,believing
statement.While
tobe
inassertiveirony,thespeakerhimselfdoesnotbelievetheproposition
ensuresversa.
true,buthehopesand
or
thehearerbelievesit.The
speakermeans
to
criticizebywayofpraise
Thethe
case
vice
majority
ofironicspeechactsareassertive
irony(Haverkate,1990).It
isalso
inthiSnovel.
(a)Mr.Bennet
Intheopeningofthestory,itisclearlydemonstratedmatmixtureofquickparts,sarcastichumour,reserve
Mr.Bennet
is
an“odd
andcaprice”(Austen,2003:3).He
Pr旬udice,Mr.Bennet
takesdelightinbefoolingcomiccharactersaroundhimandalwaysemploysironytocopewithhiswife?Sincessantbabble
and
hysteria.InPrideand
ironizeshiswifetimeaftertimeinfrontofhisdaughters.
“My
dear
Mr.Bennet.’’said
hisladytohim
one
day,‘‘haveyouheardthat
NetherfieldParkiSletatlast?”
Mr.Bennet
repliedthathehadnot.
‘‘Butitis,’’returnedshe;‘‘foraboutit.’’
Mrs.Longhasjust
beenhere,andshetoldmeall
Mr.Bennetmade
‘‘Donotyou
no
answer.
hastakenit?’’criedhiswifeimpatiently.
no
want
toknowwho
“Youwanttotell
me.andIhave
objection
to
hearit.”
TllisWasinvitation
enough.
(ibid:1)
nle
lastreplyof
Mr.Bennet
is
anexampleofassertiveirony.Searle’Sbasic
wants
to
sincerityconditionfor‘‘enquiries’’isthatthe
speaker
should
obtain
in
relevant
a
information,and
accordingto
this,Mr.Bennet
no
answer
hiswife
more
enthusiasticway.Butapparently,hehasassertionlacks
interestinhiswife’Sbabbling.thusthe
sincerity.Mrs.Bennet
isalreadyimpatienttotell
45
Mr.Bennet
ofthenews
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
that
a
a
richsinglemallhascomeintotheirneighborhood,andthathasbeenreckoned
as
great
chance
forhertomaltyherdaughterswell.
“Mr.Bennet,how
catl
youabuseyourownchildreninsuch
no
a
way?Youtake
delightinvexingme.Youhave
compassion
a
on
mypoornerves.’’
“Youmistakeme,mydear.Ihave
highrespectforyour
nerves.They
are
myold
friends.Ihaveheardyoumentionthemwithconsiderationthesetwenty
yearsatleast.,,
(ibid:3)
Mr.Bermet
nervesas
inthisassertiveironyexpresseshiswearinessofMrs.Bennetusingherexcuse,andhisvexationofhiswife’Shysteria.
constant
Dialoguesliketheaboveexamples,whichshowMr.Bennet’Ssarcasmtowardshis
wife,Canbeeasilyfoundin
Thevillainous
manychapters.
Wickhamelopes、析thLydia.and
a
only
under
the
circumstanceof
Darcyprovidinghim
steadysumofincomedoesheagreetodecentlymarryLydia.
Theshameless
theyhave
couplecomesbackhome
on
anddonotrealizeinthe
soon
as
slightest
thestigma
brought
the
family’S
reputation.Asthey
leave,Mr.Bennet
commentS:
‘‘Heisasfine
ever
a
fellow,”saidMr.Bennet,as
soon
astheywere
US
outofthehouse,“as
Isaw.Hesimpers,and
even
smirks,andmakes
loveto
a11.Iamprodigiouslyproudof
him.Ideny
Sir
WilliamLucashimselfto
produce
amorevaluableson.in.1aw.,,
(ibid:282)
Mr.Bennetproclaims
excellent
heisproudofWickham,commendinghim
being
even
more
thanMr.Collins.But
Mr.Collins
inreality,Mr.Bennethas
never
held
any
positive
opinionstowards
andhasresolutelyrefusedtomarryElizabethto
him.With
thisknowledgeinmind,wereaders
in
will
notfindit
difficult
torecognizetheinsincerity
this“praise”.Moreover,Mr.Bennet’Sironyisalsoattached
with
asense
ofremorse.
to
becausebesidesthedeficienciesinLydia’Scharacter,theelopementhassomething
do谢th
hisindulgenceofhisdaughters.
(b)ElizabethWhenMiss
witll
Bennet
a
stayinginNetherfieldPark,Elizabethinvolvesin
an
talkwithDarcy
and
Bingleyaboutthequalificationsof
accomplishedwoman.Mr.Darcy,together
Miss
Bingley,thinksthat
all
accomplishedwomanshouldhave
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
“athoroughknowledgeofmusic,singing,drawing,dancing,allthemodem
besidesallthis,shemustpossessalanguages…andcertainsomethinginherairand
shemannerofwalking,thetoneofhervoice,heraddressandexpressions…toallthis
mustyetaddsomethingmoresubstantial,intheimprovementofhermindbyextensivereading.’’
(ibid:32)
AlreadyprejudicedagainstDarcy,andhavingheardtheseridiculous,perfection-demandingcriteria,Elizabeth
“IamcannothelpteasingDarcy,nolongersurprisedatyourknowingonlysixaccomplishedwomen.Iratherwondernowatyourknowingany.’’
(ibid:33)
herdissatisfactionofElizabeth’S
qualifications.InwordsanexpressstrongDarcy’Srigorousordinarydialogue,Darcy’Sarroganceislaidbare,andElizabeth’Switandcouragearedemonstrated.
WiththemisunderstandingbetweenElizabethandDarcycleared,thetwoengage.AndEliza’Swordscomebacktoitsnormalwitty,livelyandinformalstatus.Beinthehabitofinterferinginotherpeople’Sbusiness,LadyCatherinetriestoprohibittheunionofDarcyandElizabeth,whichturnsouttofacilitatetheevent.Andintheendofthenovel.Elizabethdismissesthisoldladywithirony,
“LadyCatherinehasbeenofinfinite
lovestobeofuse.’’use,whichoughttomakeherhappy,forshe
。(ibid:328)Itisshared
isnosyandbackgroundknowledgebetweenElizaand
betweenDarcythatLadyCatherinebossy,andshedefinitelywillbefuriousaboutthemarriage.SotheironyasElizaemploysherestrengthenstheintimacy
oldladyfulloffollies.thetwo,aswelldismissingthis
(c)The
Miss
forBingleysistersBingleyintendstomarryrichDarcy.SeeingBingley’SMr.Darcy’SgrowingaffectionElizabeth,Miss
ElizabethjealousylethertakeeverypossiblechancetomockherwordswouldbrewaanddefameinfrontofMr.Darcy,wishingdislikeinDarcy’ShearttowardsEliza:47
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
‘‘ElizaBennet.’’said
Miss
Bingley,whenthedoorwasclosed
on
her,‘‘is
one
of
thoseyoungladieswhoseektorecommendthemselvestotheothertheirown;andwithdevice,avery
sex
byundervaluing
a
many
art.’’
men,Idaresay,itsucceeds.But,inmyopinion,itis
paltry
mean
(ibid:33)
But
unfortunately,Mr.Darcy
always
fightsbackandSticksupforElizabeth,
showinghispositiveaffectionofElizaand
atthe
sametime,his
negativefeelingsabout
Miss
Bingley.
“Undoubtedly,”repliedDarcy…“thereismeannessinalltheartswhichladies
sometimescondescend
despicable.’’
to
employforcaptivation.Whateverbearsaffinitytocunningis
(ibid:33)
TheBingleysisterspositionthemselvesintheupperclass,andtheydonotwantto
havecloserelationswiththemiddle-classBennets.Theytakepleasurein
mockingEliza’S
uncle
who
makes
a
living
on
business.However,thoughtheBingleyfamilyis
sanae
rich,theirfortuneisalsoacquiredbytrade,exactlythetheyarrogantlymakefunof.
withEliza’Suncle,whom
“Ihave
an
excessiveregardforJaneBennet,she
isreallysuch
a
a
verysweet
girl,and
1
wishwithallmyheartshewerewellsettled.Butsuchlow
with
father
andmother,and
connections,Iamafraidthereis
near
no
chance
ofit.”…‘‘Yes;andtheyhave
another[uncle],who
livessomewhere
Cheapside.”“Thatiscapital,”addedher
sister,andtheylaughedheartily.
(ibid:30)
5.2.2DirectiveIrony
Thespeaker’S
something.In
illocutionarypointofperformingdirectivesistogetthehearertododirectiveirony,the
a
propositionmade
or
by
thespeakerisfarfrom
enablethehearerto
reasonable,and
realizethatthe
specificcontext
semanticincongruitywill
speakerisemployingirony.
(a)Mr.Bennet
Inthesecond
paid
a
chapter,Mr.Bennet
for
a
deliberatelyconcealsthebignewsthatbetter
hehas
visitto
Mr.Bingley,looking
chanceto
surprisehisfamily,especially
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
hiswife.Hegets
too
on
on
purposespeaksof
Mr.Bingleycontinuously,which
anger,Mrs.Bennet
no
annoyshiswifeand
coughing
her
nerves
again.Toventher
reproachesⅪ姆for
to
much.Mr.Bennet
ironicallysays,“Kittyhas
discretioninher
COUghS,shetimes
themi11.”However,themomentMr.Bennetdiscloseshisvisit
BennetbecomesoverwhelmedbytumulttowardsKitty:
Mr.Bingley,Mrs.
uttersadirective
ofjoy.And
then
Mr.Bennet
‘'Now,Kitty,youmay
cough
as
much嬲youchoose”
(ibid:5).
Thisis
a
typicaldirectiveirony.Inresponsetohiswife’Sadmirmion.inordertobe
shouldnotproduce
as
an
relevant,Mr.Bennet
‘‘Youmaycough
as
utterance
an
to
Kitty.Moreover,in
context,
much
youchoose’’is
ordertoKitty,butitisunreasonablein
the
sense
thatitordersKittytodosomethingincontrollable
and
isagainstcommon
sense.Sothisdirectiveironyistargeting
Mrs.Bennet,who
sets
allhermind
on
marryingher
andalways
daughters
her
well.Sheblamesherdaughterswhenevershefeelsdiscontented,
to
usesnervesasanexcuse
wincompassion.
vex
Beingflatulent
andconceited,Mr.Collinsarouses
anddisgustin
Mr.Bennet.。
restraint,
WhenMr.CollinscommendsMr.Bennet
LadyCatherineinfrontoftheBennets
without
cannothelpteasing
himin
a
disguisedsolemnattitude:
‘‘You
judge
veryproperly,’’said
offlattedngwith
Mr.Bennet.‘‘anddelicacy.May
I
itishappyforyouthatyou
possessthetalentaskwhetherthesepleaSing
attentionsproceedfromtheimpulseofthemoment,oraretheresultofpreviousstudy?’’
(ibid:58)
This
excessivelypolitedirectivepraises
Mr.Collins
techniquesinflattedng
on
the
surface,butactuallycontainsstrongsatire.Understandingtheirfather’Sintended
meaning,all
respondsto
theBennetgirlsburstintolaugh.Onthecontrary,theabsurd
Mr.Collins
theliteralmeaningofthewords,incapableofcomprehensionofthe
underlyingtruemeaning.
(b)Elizabeth
Bennet
encounterin
Fromtheirfirst
NetherfieldPark,ElizabethhaSbeenbearing
a
strong
prejudiceand
prejudice
detestationagainst
Mr.Darcy.As
on
misunderstandingdeepens,Eliza’S
againstDarcyisnotextinguishedbutratherstrengthened,whichleadsto
Elizabeth’Smocking
and
criticizingofDarcyanypossibleoccasions.Incontrast,
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
gettingtoknowElizabetter,Darcybecomesspellboundbyherdelightfulmannerand
bright
words.He
even
takestheinitiativetoaskElizafor
a
dance.Accordingtothe
socialnormsatthattime,partnersshouldtalkwitheachotherwhentheydance,butDarcykeeps
silent
allthetime.Aiming
on
to
punishDarcy’S
taciturnity,Elizabeth
deliberatelyplaystricks
him-
After
a
pauseofsomeminutessheaddressedhim
a
secondtimewith,‘‘Itisyour
to
turn
tosay
somethingnow,Mr.Darcy.Italkedaboutthedance,andyouought
on
make
somekindofremark
thesizeoftheroom,orthenumberofcouples.’’
(ibid:79)
Thisis
a
directiveironytowardsDarcy.SinceDarcylikestoremainsilent,as
totalkabout
a
punishment,Elizabethcommandshimsomeboring
nonsense.
(c)Miss
Jealous
Bingley
Bingleyisindesiretomaltyhandsome
Elizabeth.Since
a
Missand
richDarcy,whohowbeit
onlyhasaffectiontowards
Mr.Darcy
expresseshisadmirationof
Eliza’Sbeautifuldarkeyesduring
mockthesupposedmarriageof
Eliza.
dancingparty,sensitiveMissBingleybeginsto
DarcyandEliza,tryingtoprovokeDarcyintodisliking
“Ihope,”saidshe,aLstheywerewalkingtogetherintheshrubberythenextday,“youwillgive
tothe
yourmother-in—law
a
fewhints,whenthisdesirable
event
takesplace,as
theyounger
a
advantage
ofholdinghertongue;andifyouCancompassit,docure
SO
girlsofrunningaftertheofficers.一And,ifImaymentionendeavourtocheckthatlittlesomething,bordering
on
delicate
subject,
conceit
and
impertinence,which
your
ladypossesses.’’
(ibid:44)
Atfirst
sight,MissBingleyseems
tobe
offeringDarcysuggestionsoutofher
or
kindness.Butinreality,nomatteritisappreciatedirectedto
a
Mr.Darcyhimself
wereaders,no
one
Can
tinyrayofardorandsincerityinthesuggestions.Theironyseems
on
tobe
Mr.Darcy
thesurface,butrelatives.
undemeath
itattacks
Miss
Bingley’Srivalin
love—Elizabeth,andher
5.2.3CommissiveIrony
Commissivesarethoseillocutionary
acts
whosepointis
to
committhespeakerto
a
certain
course
ofaction(Searle,1979:14).Thatis,in
outacertainactionin
commissives,thespeaker
are
promisesthathewillcarryoPPosed
future.Commissives
diametrically
todirectives,sincetheyarecentereduponanactiontobe
performedbythe
IS
speaker,not
to
iSthehearer,notthe
bythehearer;moreover,it
speaker,who
sincerity
an
supposed
primarilybenefit
fromtheresultof
the
action.The
or
conditionof
commissivesisthatthespeakerhastheintentiontothatthespeakeris
performsuch
objectively
action.Ifitisclear
subjectively
unwillingto
unabletoperform
the
committedact,thentheironicmeaningsofthecommissivesemergence?
h尸,.f出口ndPrejudice,typicalcommissive
utterances.
irony
Can
be
found
in
Mr.Bennet’S
“…Indeed
c?You
yOH
mustgo,foritwillbeimpossiblefor
scrupuloussurely.Idareday
a
US
tovisit
himifyoudo
not?”
see
areover
Mr.Bingley
willbeverygladto
vou:and1willsend
fewlinesbyyoutoassurehimofmyheartyconsenttohis
marryingwhicheverhechoosesofthegirls…’’
(Austen,2003:2)
Mr.Bermet,s
response,“1will
to
send
a
fewlinesby
you”is
an
instanceof
cor衄issive
improperfor
irony.According
thesocialconventions
a
and
customsatthattime,it
shouldbememalemastertopaythefirstvisitto
newneighbor.Anditishighly
all
Mrs.Bennet,awoman
todo
SO.Mr.Bennetcommitshimselfto
action
thatisimpossible
tocarryoutinthatsocial
background,thushiswordslackssincerity
andareironicinnature.
Mr.Collins,who
Elizabethunder
hasinheritedtheBennets’house
andother
property,proposes
to
Mrs.Bennet’spersuasion.Without
inheritor,Mrs.Bennettries
to
surprise,hehasbeentumeddown?
tO
InfearoflosingthisBennetfor
forceElizabeth
yield,andasksMr.
help.Mr.Bennetagrees,
“Letherbecalleddown.Sheshallhearmyopinion.’’
(ibid:97)
ButthisisBennet’S
a
punusedby
Mr.Bennet
to
misguidehis
wife,and
outofMrs?
expectation,Mr.Bennetsetsthe
eventtoareversedoutcome:
“Yourmotherinsistsuponyouracceptingit.Isitnot“Yes.or1will“Anunhappy
neversee
SO,Mrs.Bennet?’’
a
heragain.”
isbeforeyou,Elizabeth,Fromthisdayyoumustbe
altemation
5l
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
strangertooneofyourparents.——Your
motherwill
neversee
youagainifyoudonot
maltyMr.Collins,and1will
neversee
youagainifyoudo.’’
(ibid:97)
Mr.Bennet
pretendstobeserious.questioninghiswife’Sanddaughter’Sopinions
respectively.Hemakeshis、ⅣifereaffirmherthreattowardsEliza一“1will
a
neversee
her
again”,butinsteadofpersuadeEliza,hesuddenlyturnsto
see
counter-treat一“1will
never
youagainifyoudo”,whichinfacttotallysupports
Eliza.Mr.Bennet
obviouslyhas
poor
no
sinceritywhenhecommitstoassisthiswifeinconvincing
Eliza,and
Mrs.
Bennetfallsvictimofhiscommissiveirony.
5.2.4ExpressiveIrony
Theillocutionarygoalofexpressivespeechactpsychological
can
bedefined
as
theexpressionof
a
stateofthespeakerwhichisbroughtaboutbythestateofaffairs
indicatedbythepropositionalcontent(Haverkate,1
or
990:99).That
is,inexpressives,
thespeakerexpresseshisattitudethereis
an
feelingtowardsthehearer.Inexpressiveirony,
inconsistencybetweentheproposition
andwhat
thespeakerreallywantsto
tohave
or
express.Andunderliestheironicrealizationofexpressives,thespeakerneeds
veryspecificbackgroundinformationinordertoknowwhichevents
are
agreeable
can
disagreeable
to
whom,and
underwhich
circumstances(ibid:99).Thehearer
infer
thespeaker’Sironyfromthecontext.
(a)Mr.Darcy
Having
downrightconfidence,Mr.Darcy’SproposestoElizabethatRosings.But
ofJane’Sloveaffair
hisarroganceinhiswords,togetherwiththemisunderstanding
and
Wickham’Sunfortunate
events
promptEliza’Sdeterminedrefusal.Elizabethattacks
Darcy’ScharacterwithoutconsiderationofpolitenessandDarcy’Sface.Undoubtedly,
Elizabeth’Sreactionis
all
outofexpectation
of‘'pride’’Darcy,andhereactsbyemploying
expressiveirony:
“Andthis,”criedDarcy,ashewalkedwitllquicksteps
across
theroom,“isyour
opinionofme!’’Thisistheestimationinwhichyouholdme!Ithankyouforexplainingit
SO
fully.’’
(Austen,2003:165)
The
speech
lastsentence‘‘Ithankyouforexplainingit
SO
fully’’isanexpressiveironic
act.Darcyhasbeenthinking
itis
no
doubtthatElizabethwillaccepthis
52
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
thegapintheirfamily
proposal,consideringthefactthatheproposesregardlessofbackground,andshe’willbe
a
hostessof
a
largeestate.Comingfrom
heis
a
richnoblefamily,
psychology
Darcyisaccustomed
isset
ona
totakepridein
a
himself.Whenturneddown,his
rollercoaster.Butbeing
well—educatedgentleman,heisreluctanttoutter
a
anyoffensivewordstowardsElizabeth,insteadheemploys
milderironyin“thanking'’
Elizaforherremorselessly
attack
on
hischaracter.
(b)Elizabeth
Bennet
even
Lydia,theyoungestsisterofElizabethwhoisnot
villain
sixteen,elopeswiththe
agreeto
Wickham,who
a
onlyunderDarcy’Spromiseof
financialassistance,does
marryLydiaindoesnot
formalceremony.Whencomingback
bitof
totheBennets,thenewcouple
sensea
shame
ofthestigmathatthey
have
broughtontothe
family,
especiallyLydia,
“…You[Mrs.Bennet]andpapa,andmysisters,mustcome
shallbeatNewcastleallthe
downand
see
US.We
1will
winter,and
Idaresaytherewillbesomeballs,and
takecaretogetgoodpartnersforthemleave
oneor
all….And
then,whenyougoaway,youmay
twoofmysistersbehind
is
over.’’
you;and
IdaresayIshallget
husbands
forthem
beforethe
winter
‘‘Ithankyouformyshareofthefavour,’’saidElizabeth;‘‘butIdonotparticularlylikeyourwayofgetting
husbands.’’
(ibid:271)
Elizabeth’Sreplyis
a
typicalexpressiveironicspeechact,meaningtocriticize
a
Lydia’Simmorality.Lydiahasalwaysbeengoodbreeding.Herelopementwithandtheir
rashandflirtatiousgirlin
nature
without
Wickhamhasbroughtstigmaontothewholefamily
relatives.However,the
insatiablygoes
one
on
coupledoesnotfeeltheshameintheslightest
and
Lydia
even
tobragaboutfinding
husbandsforher
sisters.Nowonder
Elizabeth,beingthe
withsense,cannotstandLydia’Sindecency
andsatirizes
Lydia
byexpressingher“gratitude’’forhershare
of“favor”.Meanwhile,this
expressiveirony
andthefollowingutterance
whoisalSOpresent.
alsodemonstrateEliza’Scontemptoftheswindler
Wick_ham
53
6.Conclusion
6.1BriefSummary
Havingmade
a
comprehensivereviewofthehistoricalcriticisms
on
on
JaneAusten
andPrideandPre{udicewiththestressplacedirony,thisthesisfindsitnecessary
andsignificanttoinPrideand
studythephenomenonofirony
Prejudicesystemically
in
thelightofSpeechAct
withirony
are
Theory.Therelatedaspectsofthetheoryanditsconnections
themasterpieceofJaneAusten,is
elaborated.Pride
and尸rejudice,as
aaa
mainlyfeaturedbyirony,whichbearsbealingthefeatureof“indirectness”,is
closerelationwithspeechacts.Firstly,irony,specialkindofindirectspeechact.Secondly,
violationofthesincerityprincipleformsspeechof
necessaryconditionincommittinganyironic
ironyistheintentionalexpression
act.Haverkate(1990)onceemphasizedthat
insincerity.Thirdly,irony
also
its
illocutionary
shouldn’tbeunderstoodonlythroughitsliteralforce.Finally,irony
carries
to
meaning,
stronger
but
withitself
a
perlocutionaryeffect
than
directspeechacts,which
some
extent
facilitatesthe
aiminproducingtheironic
speakerinachievinghispre—planned
utterance.Following
thetheoreticalelaborationandtheliterarystudiesofthefeatureofironyinthenovelis
thecaseinto
analysis.Typicaltwocategoriesand
and
examplesareselectedunderinvestigation.Theyareclassified
sixsub.categoriesin
accordancewith
differentlinguistic
realizationofironicspeechacts.Itexpoundshowgenerated
andwhytheironicimplicatureis
whattheimplicatureiS
under
specific
contexts.
6.2PossibleContributions
Pragmatictheories
in
ale
usuallyappliedin
they
analyzing
ordinarylanguagephenomena
analyze
literaryworks,
humancommunication.Seldomare
literary
employedto
specifically,fictions.But
pragmatics,arecently。emerginginterdiscipline,
indicatesthatlanguageinfictionsandotherliteraryworks,justlikeordinarylanguage,
can
bewelldescribedwithintheframeworkof
toprovethevalidityof
pragmatic
theories.Therefore,this
researchpapertends
theapplicationofpragmaticsinstudying
东北师范大学硕士学位论文
andSearle’SSpeechliterarytexts,fictionsinparticular.OnthebasisofadoptingAustin
ActTheorytomakeananalysisofPrideand
canPrejudice,thisstudyshowsthatavarietyofironicspeechactsinthenovelbegivenconvincingillustrationswithinthe
acttheoryinframeworkofspeechacttheory,andaffirmsthattheapplicationofspeech
aliterarycriticismandappreciationhassolidfoundationandispracticallyfeasible.
Thoughpragmaticsbegantoemergeabout40yearsago,withliterarypragmaticsevenlater,JaneAustenhadlongbeforeachievedagreatcommandinmaneuveringvariouspragmatictechniquesinfavorofcontent.Theabundantconversationstogetherwithnarrations.whicharecharacterizedbyrichironyinPrideandPr奶udicesupplysufficientmaterialsforthisresearchpurpose.AndtheanalysisinthisthesisinreturnreaffirmsandenrichestheconventionalAusten
thelanguageinPrideand
inherfiction.Unlike
Prideandcriticism.ThepragmaticanalysisaboutP删udiceinonewaymanifestsandassertsAusten!Srealismsentimentalandgothicnovelsintheearly19mcentury,Austen’SsecretPrejudicehas“nodarkpassage,no
achambers,no讯nd—blowingsinlonggalleries,nodropsofblooduponrustydagger—thingsthatshouldbeleftto
ladies’maidsandsentimentalwasherwomen”asWilliamGiffordcommented(Southam,
life.Theirsayings
real.all1996:8、).InsteadAustenportrayscommonplacepeopleandordinaryanddoings,theirlikesanddislikes,andtheirvariousemotionsagefamiliarand
6.3LimitationsandSuggestedFurtherResearch
Thereisnothereismuchtobeimproved.denyingthatthispaperisfarfromperfectionand
aThisthesisiswrittenwiththeexpectationthatitwillbeofsomeassistanceto
extensiveunderstandingofAusten’Sdeeperandmoreworks.PrideandPrejudiceinparticular.ThisthesisonlyfocusesontheanalysisofAusten’Sironiclanguage,butitshouldbenotedthatpragmaticscoversamuchwiderrange,andeachtheorymaybeadequateincriticizingthefiction.Atthemeantime,thoughthenovelisfeaturedmainlybyirony,itisalsopossibletoapplypragmatictheoriestothestudyofotheraspectsofthelanguageinPride
pragmaticandPr吗udice.Lastbutnotleast,wemayextendanalysistoothernovels,orevenothergenresofliteraryworks.55
东flI-JJ¥范大学硕士学位论文
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